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Vitamin. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and
Medicine, Vol. 18, page 143 (1921).

JOHNS and FINKS. Studies in Nutrition. V. The Nutritive Value of Soy
Bean Flour as a Supplement to Wheat Flour. American Journal of
Physiology, Vol. 55, pages 455-461 (1921).

LAMER. Vitamins from the Standpoint of Physical Chemistry. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 13, pages 1108-1110 (1921). MILLER. Sanitation of Fruit and Vegetable Canneries. American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 11, pages 922-923 (1921).

DELF. Studies in Experimental Scurvy, with Special Reference to the Antiscorbutic Properties of Some South African Foodstuffs. Lancet, 1922, Vol. 1, page 576 (1922).

HART, STEENBOCK, HOPPERT, and HUMPHREY. Dietary Factors Influencing Calcium Assimilation. II. The Comparative Efficiency of Dry and Green Alfalfa in Maintaining Calcium and Phosphorus Equilibrium in Milking Cows. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 53, pages 21-30 (1922).

HART, STEENBOck, Hoppert, BETнKE, and HUMPHREY. Dietary Factors Influencing Calcium Assimilation. III. The Comparative Efficiency of Timothy Hay, Alfalfa Hay, and Timothy Hay plus Calcium Phosphate (Steamed Bone Meal) in Maintaining Calcium and Phosphorus Equilibrium in Milking Cows. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 54, pages 75-89 (1922).

HJORT. Observations on the Distribution of Fat-soluble Vitamins in Marine Animals and Plants. Proceedings of the Royal Society (London), Section B, Vol. 93, page 440 (1922).

KOHMAN. Vitamins in Canned Foods. National Canners' Association, Bulletin 19 L, 92 pages (1922).

LAMER, CAMPBELL, and SHERMAN. The Effect of Temperature and Concentration of Hydrogen Ions upon the Rate of Destruction of the Antiscorbutic Vitamin. Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 44, pages 172-181 (1922).

LINTON. Inspection of Fruit and Vegetable Canneries. United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 1084 (1922).

ORTON, MCCOLLUM, and SIMMONDS. Observations on the Presence of the Antineuritic Substance, Water-soluble B, in Chlorophyll-free Plants. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 53, pages 1-6 (1922).

PAUL. Physical Chemistry of Foodstuffs. VI. The Sensation of Sour Taste. Zeitschrift für Elektrochemie, Vol. 28, pages 435-446 (1922). SANSUM. Basic Diets in Treatment of Nephritis. California State Journal

of Medicine, Vol. 20, page 194 (1922).

SHERMAN. Distribution and Properties of Vitamin C. Transactions of the Congress of American Physicians and Surgeons, Vol. 12, pages 23-30 (1922).

SHERMAN, LAMER, and CAMPBELL. Quantitative Determination of the Antiscorbutic Vitamin. Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 44, pages 165-172 (1922).

STEENBOCK and SELL. Further Observations on the Occurrence of the Fatsoluble Vitamin with Yellow Plant Pigments. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 51, pages 63-76 (1922).

ZILVA. Conditions of Inactivation of the Accessory Food Factors. Biochemical Journal, Vol. 16, pages 42-48 (1922).

COWARD. The Formation of Vitamin A in Plant Tissues. Biochemical Journal, Vol. 17, pages 134-145 (1923).

The Association of Vitamin A with Lipochromes of Plant Tissues. Biochemical Journal, Vol. 17, pages 145-156 (1923).

EMBREY. The Antiscorbutic Vitamin in Some Oriental Fruits and Vegetables. Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. 22, page 77 (1923).

HART, STEENBOCK, HOPPERT, and HUMPHREY. Dietary Factors Influencing
Calcium Assimilation. IV. The Comparative Efficiency of Mixed
Green Grasses and This Same Mixture plus Steamed Bone Meal in
Maintaining Calcium and Phosphorus Equilibrium in Milking Cows.
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SANSUM, BLATHERWICK, and SMITH. The Use of Basic Diets in the Treat-
ment of Nephritis. Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol.
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SCHOENHOLZ, ESTY, and MEYER. Toxin Production and Signs of Spoilage in Commercially Canned Vegetables and Fruits Inoculated with Detoxified Spores of B. botulinus. XII. Journal of Infectious Diseases, Vol. 33, pages 289-327 (1923).

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ANON. What the Preservers and Fruit Products Industry Has Accomplished. National Association at Washington Convention Discusses Ways of Standardizing Jams and Jellies. American Food Journal, Vol. 18, pages 120-121 (1923).

CHAPTER X

EDIBLE FATS AND OILS

EDIBLE fats and oils are separated on a commercial scale from a great variety of food materials: butter from milk; oleomargarine, lard, and suet from meat fats; corn oil from grain; olive oil from a fruit; peanut (arachis) oil from a legume seed of nut-like character; coconut oil from a true nut; cottonseed oil from the seeds of a plant of still a different family. Of the various food fats of commerce, butter is, in America at least, by far the most prominent, and the butter industry will therefore be treated more fully than the other fat and oil industries.

Butter

The butter reported made in the United States in the year 1921 amounted to 1,705,438,000 pounds.

Since relatively small amounts of butter are imported or exported, the consumption may be taken as approximately equal to the production, and amounts therefore to about 16 pounds of butter per capita per year, or about three fourths of an ounce per person per day.

Butter making was, until fifty years ago, entirely a household industry. Since then the industry of making butter in central creameries or butter factories has grown until at present about two fifths of the butter is made in such establishments, and the proportion is constantly increasing. The description which follows relates chiefly to the making of butter in creameries or butter factories.

It is said that the first creamery was built by Alanson Slaughter in Orange County, New York, in 1861, and received the milk of about 375 cows. Less than forty years later, in 1900, a single creamery at St. Albans, Vermont, received the milk (or cream) from more than 30,000 cows, from which was made in one room between 20,000 and 25,000 pounds of butter per day.

A considerable proportion of the creameries or butter factories are owned by associations of farmers and conducted on a cooperative plan. The farmer who sends milk to the creamery is often spoken of as a patron. When the farm is at a distance from the creamery, the farmer often separates the cream and sends it alone to the creamery. Payment either for milk or cream is usually based upon the actual determination of fat content (usually by means of the Babcock test).

In order to simplify this part of the work, it is common to weigh the milk in a large cylindrical can (which remains on the scale) and after weighing each delivery take a sample by means of a Scovell or McKay sampling tube which will accurately represent the milk of the can from top to bottom and will be proportional in quantity to the amount of milk delivered. This sample is poured from the tube into a bottle or jar which contains a preservative and the jar kept closed to prevent evaporation. One jar thus serves for each patron, and the daily samples are composited in the jar for as many days as desired (usually a week, ten days, or two weeks), then tested, and the percentage of fat found in the composite sample is multiplied by the total weight of milk which it represents.

A butter factory makes more pounds of butter than it receives of butter fat in the milk because the losses of fat are more than compensated for by the water, curd, and salt of the butter. The excess of butter made over butter fat received is called the 66 overrun."

The amount of overrun depends on: (1) the thoroughness of skimming, (2) the completeness of churning, (3) the general

losses in the factory, (4) the composition of the butter. It is generally calculated in percentage of the fat received and may usually be expected to exceed 10 per cent.

Under good conditions and management, the fat content of the skim-milk should not exceed o.1 per cent, and of the buttermilk 0.2 per cent, as determined by the Babcock test.

Cream may be obtained from milk either by gravity or by centrifugal force. The prevailing method at present is by means of centrifugal separators, in which the milk flows continuously into a rotating bowl containing thin metal plates which separate the milk into inclined sheets in which by centrifugal force the heavier part is thrown toward the outer rim1 and the lighter fat globules are forced toward the center. Thus while the separator is in operation, a continuous stream of cream and another of skimmed milk is obtained from the inner and outer layers respectively of the rotated bowl of milk. In order that the skimmed milk shall not be thrown out of the machine with too great force, the tubes which receive it from the outer portion of the bowl are carried back toward the center of the bowl, where they discharge into the outlet pipe. The size of the skim-milk outlet may be made to bear any desired relation to the size of inlet, size of bowl, and speed of rotation, and thus any desired proportion of the whole milk may be drawn off as skimmed milk, while the remainder is forced to the center of the bowl and discharged through the cream outlet. McKay and Larsen state that for butter making, a cream containing from 25 per cent up to 50 per cent of fat may be taken, according to the preference of the butter-maker.

Pasteurization of milk or cream for use in butter making is growing in favor. It eliminates not only any pathogenic bacteria which may be present, but most other bacteria as well, and makes it possible to control the ripening of the cream by

1 Suspended solids heavier than the skimmed milk are forced against the outer surface and result in a deposit of "separator slime."

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