one, with all his appearance of humility and a spiritual life, is puffed up with an ungodly mind, which places its confidence in a nullity; he can neither exalt himself above the world nor to Christ, for he does not hold fast the head from which alone the body, animated by it and held together by its influence in all its members, can develop itself for the end designed by God. How is it, if ye are dead with Christ to the things of the world, that ye can adopt as if ye belonged to the world, such maxims as, Touch not this, taste not that; since all this, according to the doctrine of these persons, will only by the use tend to destruction! Which doctrines certainly have an appearance of wisdom in the arbitrarily invented worship of God, the show of humility, and the chastening of the body; but yet things which have no real value, and only serve to gratify an ungodly mind. If, therefore, ye are risen with Christ, seek after that which is above: let your thoughts be directed thither where Christ is, who is exalted to the right hand of God let your wishes be fixed on heaven.” This tendency towards heaven, this life rooted in God, was always set in opposition by Paul to the superstition that would drag down divine knowledge to the objects of sense.

This epistle was conveyed to the church at Colossæ by Tychicus, one of the missionary assistants of Paul, who was returning to Lesser Asia, his native country. But since Paul could not furnish him with epistles for all the Asiatic churches, and yet would gladly have testified his lively interest in all, and wished, as the apostle of the Gentiles, to address a word to all collectively, he prepared a circular letter designed for all the churches in that region. In this

the appearances of angels-puffed up by the delusive images, which are only a reflection of the sensuality that prevails over him, of his sensual earthly tendency to which he drags down the objects of religion, the Invisible." And in this case the contrast would be very suitable; he adheres not in faith to the invisible Head. But yet this reading appears to me to have the connexion and the meaning of single words too much against it for me to admit it. The ἐμβατεύειν appears to me too plainly to designate an impertinent eagerness to pry into what is hidden from human sight, and to presuppose the negative un; and if the apostle had wished to mark supposed appearances of angels, he would certainly not have used kúpaкev without some further limitation, some additional phrase, with which the following ein might be connected; as, for example, by a éwpakévaι dokes, this vision would have been marked as deceptive and presumptuous.

epistle, in which the apostle of the Gentiles addressed himself to all Gentile Christians as such, he treats only of one great subject of general interest, the actual efficiency of the gospel among the Gentiles, without entering upon other topics. The similarity of the two epistles (the Epistle to the Colossians and the so-called Epistle to the Ephesians) is of such a kind, that we see in it the work of the same author, and not an imitation by another hand. Let us remember that Paul, when he wrote this epistle, was still full of those thoughts and contemplations which occupied his mind when he wrote the Epistle to the Colossians; thus we can account for those points of resemblance in the second, which was written immediately after the first. And hence it also is evident, that of these two, the Epistle to the Colossians was written first, for the apostle's thoughts there exhibit themselves in their original formation and connexion, as they were called forth by his opposition to that sect whose sentiments and practices he combats in that epistle.2

Though this epistle has come down to us in the manuscripts, now extant, as addressed to the church at Ephesus, yet the general character of the contents, suited to the wants of the Asiatic Christians of Gentile descent, testifies, by the absence of all special references to the peculiar circumstances of the Ephesian church, against such an exclusive or predominant appropriation of it. If this epistle had been designed principally for the Ephesian church, Paul would certainly have been impelled to say to those among whom he had spent so long a time, many things relating solely to their peculiar circumstances. This conclusion, which we draw with certainty from the contents of the epistle, is confirmed by the information that has come down to us from antiquity, that the designation of the place in the introductory salutation is wanting in ancient manuscripts. But since the Ephe

It was so far a happy thought of Schulz to describe this Epistle as a companion to the Epistle to the Hebrews.

2 For the confirmation of this relation of the two epistles to one another, the kal in Eph. vi. 21 certainly serves, which can only be explained by supposing that Paul had in his thoughts what he had been writing to the Colossians, iv. 8, according to the correct reading va yvâte. Harless has noticed this mark in the introduction to his Commentary on the Epistle to the Ephesians, and after him Wiggers jun. in the Studien und Kritiken; 1841, 2d part, p. 453.

sian church consisted for the most part of Gentile Christians, we have no reason to doubt that this epistle was equally designed for them, though being a circular letter, the apostle touched only on those circumstances and wants which were common to them with the other churches of this district. It might also be thought most proper, that the epistle should be sent from Ephesus, as the metropolis and the seat of the mother-church, to the other churches. This would best agree with the designation which it generally obtained at an early period, as specially addressed to the Ephesian church. Yet from this remark we do not venture to infer too much, since the great preponderance of the Ephesian church, as one of the sedes apostolicæ, although the epistle at first might have had no precise designation, must have procured a predominant value to its name, as if of one directed to the Ephesian church.'

In the second period of his confinement, Paul received a contribution from the church at Philippi (who had already given practical proof of their love for him) through Epaphroditus, their messenger, from whom also he received an account of their state. In consequence of this information, he had occasion to put the Christians at Philippi on their guard against the influence of Judaizing teachers, to exhort them to union amongst themselves, and to recommend to those who had more liberal and enlarged views, forbearance towards their weaker brethren. On this last topic, he gives them, in the words of the exhortation which he added at the close of the epistle, the important rule, that all should seek to employ faithfully the measure of knowledge which they had already attained (iii. 15), that then God would reveal to them what they still wanted, and thus all would by degrees arrive at a state of Christian maturity. He exhorted them, under the persecutions to which the Christians in Macedonia were still

1 The well-founded reaction against the negative assertions of an arbitrary scepticism, must not seduce us into a superstitious overvaluation of tradition, which in its turn may lead to mere arbitrary assertions, instead of that result which offers itself from the comprehensive survey of Christian antiquity.

2 The gloss of the common reading (κανόνι, τὸ αὐτὸ φρονεῖν), which injures the meaning, arose from mistaking the sense of the passage, and supposing that it referred to Christian unity, and not to the agree ment of practice with knowledge.

exposed, to bear joyfully their sufferings for Christ's sake, and to view them as a gift of grace, which was vouchsafed to them.

CHAPTER X.

PAUL'S LABOURS AFTER HIS RELEASE FROM HIS FIRST CONFINEMENT AT ROME, TO HIS MARTYRDOM.

HITHERTO We have possessed certain information respecting the circumstances and labours of the apostle Paul during his confinement at Rome. But in reference to the sequel, we meet on all sides with great obscurity and uncertainty. The question arises, whether he ended this confinement with martyrdom, or whether he was released from it, and entered afresh on his apostolic labours. The decision of this question depends partly on the depositions of historical witnesses, partly on the result of an examination of Paul's Second Epistle to Timothy, whether this epistle, which was evidently written during a confinement at Rome, must be classed among the epistles written in the time of his first confinement, or whether we must assume the existence of a second. The narratives of the fourth century, according to which Paul was set at liberty and published the gospel in Spain, cannot be taken into account, for all these might very easily arise from what he says in his Epistle to the Romans, of his intentions of visiting Spain. But more attention is due to an account which is given by a man who was in part a contemporary, and probably a disciple of Paul. Clement, the bishop of Rome, says expressly in his First Epistle to the Corinthians, (§ 5,) that Paul suffered martyrdom, after he

1 What we learn from the only natural interpretation of this passage could not have occurred, if what Schenkel has remarked in his dissertation against a second confinement of Paul (in the Studien und Kritiken, 1841, part 1), respecting Clement's Epistle, be correct; namely, that it was written only a few years after the Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians, between the years 64 and 65; but we cannot entirely agree with this opinion. The inference from § 41, where the author expresses himself as if the temple and temple-worship at Jeru

had travelled to the boundaries of the West.' By this expression, we most naturally understand Spain; and though Clement might have understood by it some other place or country than exactly this, yet we cannot in any case suppose, that a person writing at Rome would intend by it that very city. From this account of Clement, if we must infer that

salem were still in existence, cannot countervail those passages of this epistle which contain the most undeniable marks of a later period; as § 44, on the election to church-offices; § 47, where it is presupposed that Paul wrote the First Epistle to the Corinthians at the beginning of the publication (or of his publication) of the gospel (v ȧpxņ тoû evayyeλíov). And it appears that the author knew nothing of any epistle written to the Corinthians by Paul before our first epistle to them. I also think that Clement would have expressed himself otherwise in § 5, if he had written only a few years after Paul's martyrdom. The allusions to the Epistle to the Hebrews also indicate a much later date.

1 The μαρτυρεῖν is in this connexion, μαρτυρήσας ἐπὶ τῶν ἡγουμένων, to be understood probably, not in the later meaning of martyrdom, but in the original sense of bearing testimony to the faith, although with a reference to the death of Paul, which was brought on by this confession. "He bore testimony of his faith before the heathen magistrates." At all events, the words el tŵv yovμévwv must be understood as a general designation of the heathen magistrates; and we cannot suppose that Clement intended to give a precise chronological mark, or to refer to the persons to whom at that time the management of public affairs was committed in Rome.

It

2 Schrader, indeed, adopts Ernesti's opinion, that by Tépμa Tês dúσews may be meant the boundaries of the west towards the east, and thus nothing else be intended than that Paul had just reached as far as the boundaries of the west. But though we are willing to allow that the words might in themselves be so understood, yet it is impossible so to understand them in this connexion. For Clement had just said that Paul proclaimed the gospel in the east and in the west (κήρυξ γενόμενος ἐν τῇ ἀνατολῇ καὶ ἐν τῇ δύσει), that he had taught righteousness to the whole world (δικαιοσύνην διδάξας ὅλον τὸν κόσμον), and then follow the words ἐπὶ τὸ τέρμα τῆς δύσεως ἐλθών. In this connexion, Clement must surely have intended to say that Paul advanced far into the west. may here be remarked, that Clement must have known more of the events in general of Paul's life, for he says that Paul was seven times put in fetters. After what has been said since the publication of this work against this interpretation and application of the passage in Clement, I cannot prevail on myself to give it up; and I am pleased to find critics like Credner, who hold the same views. How can it be imagined that Clement, if he thought only of Paul's first confinement at Rome, could say that he had published the gospel not merely in the east but also in the west, and had come even to the boundaries of the west! Even if we allow much for the rhetorical form of the expression, we