New defensive works at Singapore and HongKong were completed in 1888, and a part of the armament was in place, though the 10-inch guns were still wanting. The fortifications in Mauritius are to be completed in 1889. The works at Trincomalee and St. Helena were nearly finished in the middle of 1888, and those at St. Lucia were well under way. The Imperial Government has co-operated with the colonial authorities in fortifying Cape Town. The Australasian colonies have constructed forts for themselves, and armed them with guns superior to those at present available for the defense of English seaports. The imperial defense bill that was passed in the session of 1888 provides for the expense of fortifying the ports and naval stations by a loan, which is secured on the reversionary increase in value of the Suez-Canal shares held by the Government, to accrue when the existing charge is paid off. The dividends on these shares, 106,702 in number, which were purchased from the Khedive Ismail in 1875 for the sum of £3,976,582, had been pledged by him to the company till 1894. The Queensland ministry in 1888 attempted to dictate the choice of a Governor for the colony, and thus deprive the home Government of almost the last vestige of authority and participation in the government of the colony. When Sir Anthony Musgrave, the late Governor, died suddenly in October, the Queensland ministers endeavored to obtain a promise that the name of the proposed new Governor should be communicated to them before the appointment was definitely made. Lord Knutsford declined to accede, in a dispatch dated October 19, saying that it is obvious that the officer charged with the duty of conducting the foreign relations of the Crown and of advising the Crown when any question of imperial, as distinct from colonial, interest arises must owe his appointment and be responsible to the Crown alone, and that therefore it is not possible for the responsible ministers of the colony to share the responsibility of nominating the Governor or to have a veto on his appointment. The choice of the Secretary of State for the colonies fell upon Sir Henry Blake, Governor of Newfoundland, who was obnoxious to the Queensland colonists, especially on account of his position on the Irish question. His first colonial appointment, that of Governor of the Bahamas, was given as a reward for his services to the Government as a divisional magistrate in Ireland. When this appointment was communicated to the Queensland ministers, they telegraphed a strong protest. On November 22 Sir Henry Parkes, the Premier of New South Wales, moved an address to the Queen, to which the Legislative Assembly agreed without a division, expressing the opinion that colonial governors should be selected from men who have held high office or served in the Imperial Parliament, and that a colonial Government should be informed of an intended appointment before it is actually VOL. XXVIII.-26 A

made. South Australia and the other colonies, with the exception of Victoria, likewise supported Queensland in the position that she had taken. The incident was closed by Sir Henry Blake's asking to be relieved, and the acceptance of his resignation.

In Africa Great Britain has abandoned to Germany her claims to Damaraland and Great Namaqualand, and has contracted her sphere of interests in the region where the Germans have founded their colony of the Camaroons. In Zanzibar the Germans compete for the supremacy once held by Great Britain. Berbera and parts of the Somali coast were proclaimed British territory at various dates between July, 1884, and January, 1886, and the powers were notified, in compliance with the general act of the Berlin Conference, on July 20, 1887. The annexation of Zululand was notified on July 8, 1887. The Gold Coast protectorate has been extended so far eastward as to include the mouths of the Niger and the Calabar oil rivers. The trade of the colonies of Gambia, Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast, and Lagos is about £3,000,000 annually. The area of the Niger protectorate, extending from the mouths of the river to Yola, on the Binué, is 23,000 square miles, while the Royal Niger Company has obtained trade rights by treaty with native chiefs over 260,000 square miles more, reaching up the Binué to the German boundary, and up the Niger as far as the rapids, and including the kingdoms of Gandu and Sokoto. The protectorate over the Niger districts was notified on June 5, 1885, in the "London Gazette," and announced in diplomatic form six days later. The recent extension northward from Cape Colony into Bechuanaland and the Kalahari desert has added more than 180,000 square miles to the area of British South Africa, of which 48,000 square miles form a Crown colony, and the remainder a protectorate. According to a recent treaty with Germany, the region north of German East Africa, bounded by a line following the Sana river northwestward, across the equator, and down to Victoria Nyanza, has been allotted to England as her sphere of influence. The coast and the right of collecting transit duties have been leased by the Sultan of Zanzibar to the British East Africa Company. This acquisition is expected to give the English the control of one of the richest regions of Central Africa. The rainfall is deficient in the territory covered by the treaty, although there is good grazing country both on the coast and in the highlands of Masailand. But the chief value of the British section is that it gives access to the rich and populous countries around Lake Victoria and Lake Albert, including the Equatorial Provinces of Egypt. The total area over which Great Britain exercises a commanding influence in Africa, exclusive of Egypt, is not less than 1,000,000 square miles, with a population of 30,000,000, and a commerce of about £20,000,000 a year.

The island of Mauritius, lying in the Indian Ocean, 500 miles east of Madagascar, has an area of 708 square miles, and a population of 368,415. The present Governor is Sir John Pope Henessy. The Council of Government is composed of 10 elective, 8 official, and 9 appointed members. A new Constitution was adopted in 1885, introducing the elective principle. But few votes are cast by the Indians, who constitute two thirds of the population, and who are at present represented in the Government by one of the nominated members of the Council. The rest of the population comprises natives of African race, Chinese, French Creoles, a few English, and mixed races. The imports in 1886 were valued at 23,946,967 rupees, and the exports at 32,383,399 rupees, of which sum 29,126,169 rupees represent the export of raw sugar.

In the beginning of 1888 the English, by means of a warlike expedition, imposed their dominion on the Yonnies and other tribes back of Sierra Leone. The Mendis and the Lokkohs, residing within the frontiers of British Quiah, made an attack on their neighbors outside of the British protectorate. These invited the aid of the Yonnies, who in October, 1887, descended on the town of Senneboo, and destroyed this and other places belonging to a female chief called Madame Yoko. Sir Francis de Winton was then appointed the head of an expedition into the Yonnie country, which captured Robari, the chief town, and subjugated the country, which was then placed under a chief selected by the conquerors.

The state of Sarawak, in the island of Borneo, was founded in 1841 by Sir James Brooke, who established a settled and peaceful government among the hostile races of Sulus, Malays, and Dyaks, who had previously lived by piracy and rapine. He prayed for the protection of the British Government, and even offered to transfer the dominion that he had established to the British Crown, with reservation of the rights of the natives; but was unable to obtain from his own Government the recognition of the country as an independent state until after the United States and Italy had given such recognition. After he had relinquished the government to his successor, and returned to England to end his days, he still labored to secure the protection of the Imperial Government for the state that he had created, which he feared would pass under the dominion of some other European power, and in 1864 was gratified when a British consul was appointed to Sarawak. In June, 1888, the Supreme Council of Sarawak sanctioned an agreement that the present Rajah Brooke had concluded with the British Government, which has at last decided to establish a protectorate over Sarawak, which will probably soon be extended to the recently founded state of North Borneo and the independent native state of Brunai. Sarawak will continue to be governed as an independent state by the Rajah Brooke and his successors, and the

British Government acquires no right to interfere in the internal administration, but will be the arbiter in cases of disputed succession and in all disputes with foreign states, including North Borneo and Brunai, and no cession of territory to a foreign power can take place without its consent.

Labuan, an island thirty square miles in extent, off the north west coast of Borneo, is a Crown colony. It is peopled by about 6,000 Malays from Borneo, with some Chinese traders and a score of Europeans who carry on a trade in sago, gutta-percha, India-rubber, wax, and other products of the main island with Singapore. The imports of 1887 were valued at $370,751, and the exports at $417,551. The state of North Borneo is under the direction of the proprietary British North Borneo Company, with headquarters in London, which pays over $50,000 in salaries in the colony. The area is 27,500 square miles, and the population 175,000, consisting of Mohammedan settlers on the coast and native tribes in the mountainous interior, with a few Chinese traders and artisans. Sandakan, on the east coast, is the chief port. The revenue in 1886 from licenses, duties, royalties, etc., was $127,781, and from land sales $12,034; the expenditure, $218,061. The value of the exports was $524,724; of imports, $849,115. The convention with Sarawak is of the same form as those concluded with the sultans or rajahs of Perak, Selangore, Sungei Ujong, and other native territories around Singapore, and the acquisitions in Borneo will probably, like these, be placed under the direction of the Governor of the Straits Settlements. The last protectorate established in the Malay peninsula was over the dominions of the Rajah of Pahang, lying to the east of Perak and Selangore. The rajah, who is invested by the treaty with the title of sultan, agrees to make no concession or grant of any kind to a foreigner unless he be a British subject or a person of Chinese, Malay, or other Oriental race. The present Governor of the Straits Settlements is Sir Frederick Aloysius Weld, who received his appointment in 1880. The colony comprises the islands of Singapore and Penang, with small adjacent islands, the strips of coast on the Malayan peninsula known as Province Wellesley and the Dindings, newly acquired territory south of Krian, and Malacca, on the western coast of the peninsula. The native states under British protection occupy the whole coast line between Malacca and Province Wellesley. The British Resident in each native state, and the European officers on his staff, besides discharging executive functions reserved to them, share in the government as members of the State Council. The native rulers obtain their revenue mainly from the export duty on tin. The population of Singapore, Penang, and Malacca, in 1881, was 423,384. There were 3,483 whites, 30,985 natives of India, 174,327 Chinese, and 174,392 Malays. The chief exports are tin, sugar, pepper, nutmegs,

maize, sago, tapioca, rice, buffalo-hides, rattan, gutta-percha, India-rubber, gambier, gum, coffee, and tobacco. These are mostly the prodacts of the islands of the Malaysian Archipelago and of the peninsula outside of the Straits Settlements. The total imports in 1886 amounted to £21,776,714, and the exports to £18,655,240. The largest amount of trade is with Netherlands India, which is nearly equaled by that with Great Britain, the Malay Peninsula, and Hong-Kong coming next, and after these Siam, India, and British Burmah.

On April 3, 1888, the war-ship "Caroline " raised the British flag on Fanning, Christmas, and Penrhyn Islands in the Micronesian archipelago. The first-named was discovered in 1798 by an American sea-captain, Edmund Fanning, and has been occupied since before 1855 by an Englishman who, with native labor, cultivates the cocoanut-palm. Christmas Island, another coral lagoon island, lies near it, to the southeast, in 2° north latitude and 158° east longitude. They are about equidistant from the Samoan, the Hawaiian, and the Society groups. Large quantities of guano have been taken from both Fanning and Christmas Islands, but the old deposits are nearly exhausted. Penrhyn Island, likewise of coral formation, in 10° south latitude and 158° west longitude, is larger than the others, having a circumference of thirty-five miles, and may prove a valuable acquisition commercially and strategically, as it has a large, deep, and safe harbor, and produces considerable quantities of béche-de-mer and mother-of-pearl. It is also useful as a port of refuge, as it lies in the route between Sydney and Panama, and near the course taken by mail steamers between Auckland and San Francisco.

The Hervey or Cook Islands, lying southwest of the Society group and southeast of Samoa, in 20° south latitude and 160° west longitude, were made a British protectorate in the autumn of 1888. There are seven islands, the largest of which are Rarotonga and Mangaia, each about thirty miles in circumference. Both possess a good soil and rich vegetation. On Mauki, one of the smaller islands, ironwood is found in large quantities. Hervey Island is a large atoll, covered with cocoanutgroves. The Rarotongans are governed by a queen. They are the most civilized, well-conducted, and prosperous of all the Pacific island

ers.

The English Government refused their prayer for a protectorate in 1864. Since then the New Zealand authorities have repeatedly recommended the annexation of the group. Rarotonga has two.small, but fairly secure harbors, and its annexation, like that of Fanning and Penrhyn Islands, is due to its prospective value as a coaling station and port of safety in case the Panama Canal is completed. The population of the Hervey Islands does not exceed 8,000. The protectorate was proclaimed by the British vice-consul in Rarotonga on October 20, and afterward in the other islands.

GREECE, a constitutional monarchy in Southeastern Europe. After gaining its independence by a successful rebellion against Turkey, the kingdom was constituted in 1830 under the protection of England, France, and Russia. The present sovereign, Georgios I, born Dec. 24, 1845, a son of King Christian of Denmark, was elected King of the Hellenes in 1863, and in 1867 married Olga, daughter of the Grand-Duke Constantine, brother of the Emperor Alexander II of Russia. The heirapparent is Prince Konstantinos, Duke of Sparta, born Aug. 2, 1868, who was betrothed in September, 1888, to the Princess Sophie of Prussia. The legislative power is lodged in a single chamber. The members of the Boulé or Legislative Assembly, 150 in number, are elected for four years by universal suffrage. The ministry, constituted May 21, 1886, was composed of the following members: President of the Council and Minister of Finance and of War, C. Tricoupis; Minister of the Interior, C. Lombardos; Minister of Justice, D. S. Voulpiotis; Minister of Worship and Public Instruction, P. Manetas; Minister of Foreign Affairs, E. Dragumis; Minister of Marine, G. Theotokis. M. Lombardos died on Sept. 5, 1888, and M. Tricoupis assumed temporarily the portfolio of the Interior.

Area and Population.-The area of Greece is 25,014 square miles, including 5,073 square miles that were detached from Turkey under pressure of the great powers in 1881. The population probably exceeds 2,200,000. The capital, Athens, had 84,903 inhabitants in 1884. The vital statistics for 1882, the last year reported, were as follow: Births, 43,157; deaths, 32,194; excess of births, 10,963; marriages, 11,186. The Hellenes constitute only about one fourth of the Greek race, as there are nearly 6,000,000 Greeks in European Turkey, Asia Minor, and the Ottoman islands of the Levant, and considerable trading colonies in Northern Africa and various parts of the East.

Commerce. The chief exports are dried currants, of which 270,000,000 pounds were produced in 1887; olive-oil; lead, of which the mines at Laurium yielded 10,147 metric tons in 1885; silver-ore; zinc; dye-stuffs; wines, the export of which is increasing; tobacco; wool; and sponges. The annexed province of Thessaly is fertile and well cultivated, and produces large quantities of wheat and barley.

A large part of the carrying-trade of the Black Sea and the eastern parts of the Mediterranean is under the Greek flag. The merchant navy at the beginning of 1886 consisted of 72 steamers, having a tonnage of 36,272, and 3,141 sailing-vessels, of 225,224 tons, not including 6,000 coasting-vessels.

There were 320 miles of railroads in operation in 1887, while 56 miles were building, 60 miles more had been authorized, and 380 miles in addition were projected. In the session of 1888-'89 the Government proposed a network in the Peloponnesus and a line to Larissa unit

ing the Greek system with the great European artery. The telegraph lines had in 1886 a total length of 4,128 miles, with 4,800 miles of wires. The number of internal telegrams sent in 1885 was 544,556; of international telegrams sent and received, 181,991. The PostOffice forwarded 6,182,571 letters, 167,321 postal-cards, and 4,792,522 journals, circulars, etc. The receipts were 954,477 drachmas or francs, and the expenses 802,120 drachmas.

The Army and Navy.-Universal military service was introduced by an act that was passed in 1879. The laws of 1882 and 1886 make the total period of service 19 years, namely, 2 years with the colors, 7 or 8 in the reserve, and the remainder in the militia. The term of active service is shortened by long leaves of absence. The estimates for 1888 fix the strength of the army at 26,340 officers and men.

The navy in 1887 consisted of 2 small ironclads, 1 unarmed cruiser, 2 iron gun-boats, 3 small steamers for coast service that were built in England in 1885, 1 corvette, 1 transport, 1 torpedo-ship, 14 small gun-boats, and 48 torpedo-boats. The Government has ordered 4 iron-clads, which are being constructed in France at a cost of 26,000,000 drachmas. In September, 1888, a squadron left the Piræus in order to re-enforce the remonstrances of the Government regarding the seizure of Greek vessels engaged in sponge - fishing in Chios and Rhodes. The Ottoman Government ultimately released the captured vessels and crews.

Finances. The revenue in 1887 was estimated at 94,656,907 drachmas, and the expenditure at 94,269,188 drachmas. There was a deficit in 1885 that was estimated at 61,000,000 drachmas, and one of 25,000,000 drachmas in 1886, not reckoning 75,000,000 drachmas of extraordinary expenditure for mobilizing the army at the time of the Bulgaro-Servian war. These deficits compelled the Government, when it had just resumed specie payments, to re-issue a forced paper currency, causing a depreciation of 25 per cent. The budget for 1888 makes the revenue 95,306,231 drachmas, and the expenditure 92,509,705. The debt absorbs 37,409,249 drachmas of the expenditure. The salt, petroleum, and match monopolies have been pledged for the interest on a new loan of 135,000,000 drachmas, which is applied to paying off old loans bearing 7 and 9 per cent. interest, funding the floating debt, and enlarging the navy. The debt on Jan. 1, 1888, amounted to 529,921,220 drachmas, exclusive of 104,800,300 drachmas of paper notes and 6,500,000 drachmas of treasury bills.

The Macedonian Question.-Renewed activity of the Panslavist committees in the Bulgarian part of Macedonia, impelled the leaders of the Greek population of the province to prepare for a rising in case the Bulgarian agitation should lead to rebellion. Several Greek inhabitants of the district of Monastir were arrested on the charge of high treason, the bishops of Serres and Castoria were expelled by the

Turkish authorities, and the Greek Consul there, M. Panuria, was ordered to leave the country in April, 1888. In retaliation, the Greek authorities gave the Turkish Consul at Larissa notice to quit. At the close of that month the Turkish minister at Athens, Feridoun Bey, received a letter of recall; but mediation of Great Britain and Austria resulted in his being ordered to continue at his post, and the imprisoned citizens were released. The disturbances were continued by Greek brigands until they were suppressed by the energetic action of the military. On June 20 a famous robber named Nico, who some years before had captured an English officer, Col. Singer, and obtained a ransom of $75,000, was killed near Castoria, with nine of his men, and thirteen other brigands were shot at Blatza in the same week.

GREEN, SETH, pisciculturist, born in Irondequoit, N. Y., March 19, 1817; died in Rochester, N. Y., Aug. 20, 1888. He attended the district school, but spent much of his time in

hunting and fishing, and as he grew older was noted for his knowledge of natural history. In pursuit of the white fish he became familiar with all the great northern lakes, and long before Northern New York was known to sportsmen, he had explored its woods, and in pursuit of trout had fished in the streams and lakes of the Adirondacks. His chief business for many years was the furnishing of fish and game to his patrons. In 1837 he conceived the idea of the artificial propagation of fish, and in 1838, while on a trip to Canada, studied the habits of salmon. Finding that as soon as the spawn was cast, the male salmon and other fish eat it, he devoted his attention to methods of protect

ing it, and increased the yield of fish until he had raised the product to ninety-five per cent. His main principle was, that in proportion as the milt of the male fish was separated from water mixed with it in a natural state, a large percentage of eggs would become impregnated by it. In 1864 he purchased property in Caledonia, N.Y., where he began the artificial breeding of fish, and after his success with the salmon and the trout fry, continued his undertaking until he had hatched artificially whitefish; German, California, mountain, rainbow, brook, lake, and salmon trout; carp; salmon; striped and Otsego bass; sturgeon; muscalonge; grayling; herring; wall-eyed pike; mullet; creek red-side suckers; and shiners. At his shadhatcheries, on Connecticut river, he also produced frogs and lobsters. By invitation, in 1867, of the fish commissioners of four of the New England States, he experimented on the hatching of shad at Holyoke on Connecticut river, and by his method he produced 15,000,000 shad fry from spawn submitted to him, and in 1868 40,000,000 shad fry were hatched by his improvements. In the first-named year he devised the form of floating hatching-box, with a wire bottom, that tilted at an inclination toward the current, with which his success was so great. On the establishment of the New York Fish Commission, in 1868, he was made a member of it, and continued so until his death, having been made superintendent in 1870. In 1869 he began shad-culture in Hudson river, and in 1870 he stocked the Susquehanna, Potomac, and Savannah rivers with shad. His great triumph was the transportation, in 1871, of 10,000 young shad from Hudson river across the continent to Sacramento river, in California, as a result of which this fish is now found in almost every stream entering the Pacific Ocean. Upward of a million marketable shad are now annually sold on the Western coast. He also introduced shad into the tributaries of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, and stocked the lakes of New York and the Great Lakes. In 1874 he visited Au Sable river, Mich., in search of the grayling, but finding the fish had spawned, he sought for fertilized eggs and finally succeeded in hatching out these fish. He hybridized striped bass with shad; shad with herrings; brook trout with salmon trout; brook trout with California salmon; salmon trout with whitefish; and European trout with American brook trout. He was one of the earliest members of the American Fish Culture Association, and his name appears as an honorary or active member on the rolls of nearly every society in this country that has for its object fishing, hunting, or the protection of fish and game. His great familiarity with trout-fishing made him famous as a fly-caster, and at one time he was the champion for long distances. The Société d'Acclimation of Paris gave him two gold medals, and his services were recognized by various foreign governments. He published

"Trout Culture "(Rochester, 1870), and "FishHatching and Fish-Catching" (1879). He was called the father of American fish-culture.

GUATEMALA, a republic of Central America; area, 121, 140 square kilometres; population, Jan. 1, 1887, 1,357,900. The number of deaths in 1887 was 23,401, while there were born 59,734 children, 18,020 of whom were white and 41,714 Indian. On Jan. 1, 1888, the population had increased to 1,394,233.

Government.-The President is Gen. Manuel Lisandro Barillas. The Vice-President is Gen. Calixto Mendizábal. The Cabinet is composed of the following ministers: Foreign Affairs, Don Enrique Martínez Sobral; Public Instruction, Don Francisco Muñoz; Interior and Justice, F. Anguiano; Public Works, S. Barrutia; Finance, Don Mauricio Rodriguez; War, C. Mendizábal. The Guatemalan Minister at Washington is Don Francisco Lainfiesta; the Consul-General at New York is Mr. Jacob Baiz; the Consul at New Orleans, Don Emiliano Martinez; and at San Francisco, Don José M. Romá. The U. S. Minister for all Central Amer ica, resident at Guatemala, is Henry C. Hall; and the Consul-General, James R. Hosmer.

Army.—The regular army is distributed among the capitals of departments and a few larger towns; it varies in strength, according to the exigencies of the times. It did not exceed 2,000 in number in 1888, whereas the militia, well drilled and equipped with the best of modern arms, constitutes a force of 50,000 men.

Finances. On Dec. 31, 1887, the national indebtedness stood as follows: Home debt, $7,659,396; foreign debt, £908,292 ($4,541,460); total, $12,200,856. The outstanding 5per-cent. loan of 1856 and the 6-per-cent. loan of 1869 were converted, April 30, 1888, into a 4-per-cent. consolidated bonded sterling debt up to July 1, 1891, from which date the interest will be 43 per cent., but the arrears of interest to be paid only at the rate of 72 per cent. The income of the Government in 1887 was $6,398,727, the outlay being an equal amount. The budget for 1888 estimates the expenditure at $4,135,294. During the summer and autumn the discount rate in Guatemala ruled at 9 per cent., and only a fraction over that for advances of funds on coffee.

Postal Service. In 1887 the home mails forwarded 4,523,385 items of mail-matter, as compared with 3,987,489 in 1886, an increase of 535,896 items. The foreign mail-matter dispatched consisted in 1887 of 186,796 ordinary letters and postal-cards, 10,683 registered letters, and 442,845 newspapers and packages; together, 640,324 items; in 1886 there were 198,168 letters and postal-cards, 8,877 registered letters, and 410,413 newspapers and packages, aggregating 617,458 items-showing an increase of 22,866 items.

Telegraphs.-The length of wire of the national telegraphic system, early in 1887, was 2,032 miles, with 89 offices, employing 259 telegraphers, and representing an investment of