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Several of the leaders, Newman, Ward, Oakely, Archdeacon Wilberforce, and about two hundred other clergymen, with an equal number of prominent laymen, went over to the Church of Rome.

In Tract No. 87, Williams advocated the doctrine of Reserve in Religious Truths; and the Tract No. 90, the most famous and the last of all, by Dr. Newman, brought on the crisis. In this Tract Dr. Newman undertook to show that men might hold the Tridentine views and yet remain in the Church of England.

Essays and Reviews.

In 1860 a volume appeared called Essays and Reviews. It was a sort of rebound from the extreme high church doctrines of the Tracts for the Times, and contained doctrines which it seemed difficult for ordinary Christians to reconcile with any fixed belief in Christianity and the Bible.

Being written by men who were members and dignitaries of the Church of England, the Essays and Reviews produced a prodigious agitation, and an attempt was made to silence and punish the writers, by ecclesiastical and legal proceedings, according to the forms peculiar to the English national church. A decision adverse to the writers was obtained in the Court of Arches, the highest ecclesiastical court, in 1862; but the decision was reversed on a final appeal to the Privy Council, in 1864. The articles which composed this memorable volume were the following: 1. The Education of the World, by Frederick Temple, D.D., Head Master of Rugby School; 2. Bunsen's Biblical Researches, by Rowland Williams, D. D., Hebrew Professor of St. David's College, Lampeter; 3. On the Study of the Evidences of Christianity, by Baden Powell, F. R. S., Savilian Professor at Oxford; 4. The National Church, by Henry Bristow Wilson, B. D., Professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford; 5. On the Mosaic Cosmogony, by C. W. Goodwin, M. A.; 6. Tendencies of Religious Thought in England, 1688-1775, by Mark Pattison, B. D., Rector of Lincoln College, Oxford; 7. On the Interpretation of Scripture, by Benjamin Jowett, Regius Professor of Greek at Oxford.

The excitement produced by the publication of Essays and Reviews was greater even than that produced by Tracts for the Times. Besides the agitation of this subject in Convocation and in the Courts, more than fifty controversial volumes and pamphlets about it have been published. As under the influence of the Tracts for the Times many members of the Church of England went over to the Church of Rome, so under the influence of the Essays and Reviews many have become thoroughly and openly infidel.

Wilberforce.

WILLIAM WILBERFORCE, 1759–1833, is known all over the world by his labors for the abolition of the slave-trade. He is almost equally well known in Christian circles by his work, A Practical View of Christianity.

Wilberforce was born at Hull, and graduated at Cambridge. At the University he formed an intimacy with William Pitt and Isaac Milner. Milner's influence, joined to that of Doddridge's Rise and Progress, awakened in Wilberforce that earnest religious spirit which marked his life ever afterwards. He was also influenced in the

same direction by a pious aunt, who had been one of Whitefield's converts and admirers. He entered Parliament in 1780, and remained in it for forty-five years, or until 1825. He began the agitation for the abolition of the slave-trade in 1787, and followed it up, in Parliament and out of Parliament, for twenty years, until finally, in 1807, the bill abolishing the trade was passed. He lived also to see slavery itself abolished in the British West Indies, the bill to that effect having passed in 1883, only a few days before his death.

Besides his numerous Speeches, Addresses, and public Letters on the Slave-Trade, and on Slavery, Wilberforce wrote a work already referred to, commonly called Wilberforce's Practical View, which had a wonderful influence on the religious character of the higher classes in Great Britain. What Wesley and Whitefield did for the lower and middle classes, Wilberforce, both by his book and by his personal character, did to a great extent for the nobility and gentry. He awakened them from that state of indifference and practical infidelity into which they had fallen, and recalled them to more serious views of life. The moderate tone of his book, together with his own genial and persuasive manners, joined to his high position as a statesman and a publicist, gave added force to his religious arguments, as the same qualities did to his political and philanthropic appeals.

The full title of his book is "A Practical View of the Prevailing Religious System of Professed Christians in the Higher and Middle Classes in this Country, Contrasted with Real Christianity." Wilberforce's Life, consisting in large measure of his letters and other writings, was published by his sons Robert and Samuel, in 5 vols., Svo.

As an orator, Wilberforce “distinguished himself in Parliament by an engaging natural eloquence, set off by the sweetest and most exquisitely modulated of human voices, whilst his affectionate heart, caressing manners, and brilliant wit made him the most delightful of companions."— Macaulay.

SAMUEL WILBERFORCE, D. D., 1805 a son of William Wilberforce, was born at Broomfield, Clapham Common, and educated at Oxford, where he was greatly distinguished for scholarship.

Dr. Wilberforce has risen through a series of honorable appointments to his present eminent position of Bishop of Winchester, having previously been chaplain to Prince Albert, Lord High Almoner to the Queen, Select Preacher before the University of Oxford, and Bishop of Oxford. He has published the following works: Note-Book of a Country Clergyman, intended to illustrate the practical working of the parochial system of the Church of England; Sermons preached before the University of Oxford; Agathos and other Sunday Stories; The Rocky Island and Other Parables; Four Sermons Preached before the Queen; History of the Protestant Episcopal Church in America; Heroes of Hebrew History; Addresses to Candidates for Ordination; everal volumes of Sermons, and numerous separate sermons and addresses.

ROBERT ISAAC WILBERFORCE, 1800-1857, another son of William Wilberforce, was educated at Oxford, and became successively archdeacon of the East Riding of Yorkshire, and Prebendary of York.

In 1854, he became a Catholic, and set out for Rome, by invitation of the Pope, for the purpose of entering the priesthood of the Roman Church, but died on his way, at Albano. He published The Five Empires, an outline of ancient history; Rutilius and Lucius, or Stories of the Third Age; Church Courts and Church Discipline, showing the necessity and duty of the State's abandoning all legislation on church matters;

The Christian Kingdom the Witness of Christ; Sermons on the New Birth of Man's Nature; The Doctrine of the Incarnation; The Doctrine of Holy Baptism; History of Erastianism; Doctrine of the Holy Eucharist.

EDWARD WILBERFORCE, son of Archdeacon R. I. Wilberforce, and grandson of William Wilberforce, served some years in the navy. He was married in 1860 to an American lady. He has published Brazil Viewed through a Naval Glass; Social Life in Munich; One with Another, a Novel; The Duke's Honor, a Novel; Franz Schubert, a musical biography, translated from the German; Poems.

JOHN PYE SMITH, D. D., LL. D., 1774-1851, was an accomplished and able theologian, belonging to the English Independents.

Dr. Smith was born in Sheffield, where his father was a bookseller. He was for fifty years, 1800-1850, Tutor or Professor, part of the time of Classics and part of the time of Divinity, in the Independent Theological Academy at Homerton. When Homerton, Highbury, and Coward Colleges were united in 1850 in the formation of New College, St. John's Wood, a Testimonial Fund of £3000 was raised for Dr. Smith, and he was permitted to retire from active duty. His chief work, The Scripture Testimony to the Messiah, 3 vols., Svo, has been regarded with great favor, and has been frequently reprinted. His other works are for the most part subsidiary to this. They are Four Discussions on the Sacrifice and Priesthood of Christ; Principles of Interpretation as applied to the Prophecies; Personality and Divinity of the Holy Spirit; The Mosaic Account of the Deluge; Scripture and Geology, etc.

CHARLES SIMEON, 1759-1836, a distinguished clergyman of the Church of England, was rector of Trinity Church, Cambridge, for fiftythree years, from 1783 to 1836.

Mr. Simeon was celebrated as a preacher. He published a work on the composition of sermons, which in successive editions grew until, in its final form, it appeared in 17 vols., 8vo, under the title of Hora Homileticæ. It consists mainly of Skeletons of Sermons on passages of Scripture, so arranged as to make a sort of running commentary on the whole Bible. There are over twenty-five hundred of these Skeletons. Simeon's Complete Works fill 21 volumes,

Blanco White.

REV. JOSEPH BLANCO WHITE, 1775-1841, attracted great attention by his writings on points in controversy between Catholics and Protes

tants.

Mr. White was born at Seville, in Spain, a descendant of an Irish Catholic family who had settled in that country. He was educated for the priesthood, and was ordained a priest in 1799. Becoming unsettled in his religious opinions, he went in 1810 to England, where he spent the remainder of his life. He purposed at one time connecting himself with the Church of England, but afterwards declared himself a Unitarian. From the autobiography which he left behind, he seems to have wavered to the last, without having ever attained any fixed belief. He was a man of vigorous intellect, and he wrote many works. These, being mostly either upon Spanish affairs,

or upon the pending controversies between Catholics and Protestants, and mixed up a good deal with his own personal history, attracted great attention.

The most important of his works was that published posthumously, Life of Rev. Joseph Blanco White, written by Himself, with Portions of his Correspondence, 3 vols., 8vo. The titles of some of his other works are Letters from Spain; Practical and Internal Evidence against Catholicism; Dialogues Concerning the Church of Rome; Observations on Heresy and Orthodoxy, etc.

RICHARD WATSON, 1781-1833, was a leading theologian among the Methodists.

Watson was born in Lincolnshire. He became a preacher at fifteen, and published his first work, An Apology for the People called Methodists, at nineteen. His works are numerous, and are in excellent repute. The chief is his Theological Institutes, 3 vols., 8vo, a standard work on theology. Some of his other works are A Defence of Wesleyan Missions; The Eternal Sonship of Christ; Life of Wesley; Biblical and Theological Dictionary; Universal Redemption, etc. His Works complete have been published in 13 vols., 8vo.

RALPH WARDLAW, D. D., 1779–1853, was in his day the most celebrated preacher and divine of the Scotch Independents.

Wardlaw was a Seceder by birth, being a descendant of the celebrated Ebenezer Erskine. He studied first at the University of Glasgow, and then at the Divinity Hall of the Secession Church at Selkirk; but before completing his studies, he adopted the views of the Independents and entered the ministry of that church. He was pastor of the Congregational Church in Glasgow fifty years, from 1803 to 1853, and was also Professor of Theology in the Independent Theological Academy of that city from 1811 to the time of his death. Besides discharging the duties of his pastorate and of his professor's chair, Dr. Wardlaw was active with his pen, and wrote a large number of works.

The most important of his works are Christian Ethics; The Nature and Extent of the Atonement; Discourses on the Socinian Controversy; Essays on Assurance of Faith, etc.; Discourses on the Sabbath; On Miracles; Congregational Independency; On Infant Baptism; National Church Establishments Examined; Systematic Theology; Lectures on Ecclesiastes, Proverbs, Zechariah, Romans, and James. Allibone enumerates twenty-five different publications, several of them in 2 or 3 volumes.

THOMAS MCCRIE, D. D., 1772-1835, was a very eminent Scotch theologian of this period.

Dr. McCrie was a native of Dunse, Scotland, and a graduate of Edinburgh. He was for ten years minister of a congregation in Edinburgh, but afterwards became Professor of Divinity to the Constitutional Associate Presbytery.

Dr. McCrie applied himself particularly to the study of the history of the Reformation, and his learned works on this subject are received with great favor by all Presbyterians. Two of his works, The Life of John Knox, and The Life of Andrew Melville, are in fact a history of the Reformation in Scotland. Besides these, he wrote A History of the Progress and Suppression of the Reformation in Italy, and A History of the Progress and Suppression of the Reformation in Spain.

McCrie published also several other works, but these four, the Lives of Knox and Melville, and the history of the Reformation in Italy and in Spain, are the chief. Among his minor works was an extended critique upon Old Mortality, vindicating the Covenanters, and undertaking to show that Scott's picture of them was a caricature. IIe pressed the argument so seriously that Scott was forced to reply.

Kitto.

JOHN KITTO, D. D., 1804-1854, is a signal instance of what may be accomplished by courage and perseverance, in the face of difficulties.

Kitto was a native of Plymouth, the son of a mason. In his twelfth year, while assisting his father, Kitto fell from the roof of a building, and was so injured that he lost his hearing, and remained totally deaf the rest of his life. Notwithstanding his deafness and his poverty, he struggled manfully with the difficulties of his lot, and became famous for his learning and his works.

Kitto published a great many works upon sacred subjects and upon travels in the East. His principal work, however, is his Cyclopædia of Biblical Literature, first published in 1843, and since then in many succeeding editions. Dr. Kitto was also editor of Kitto's Sunday Readings and Kitto's Journal of Sacred Literature.

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"The name of Dr. Kitto is now immortally associated with biblical study and literature. The measure of his success is not more amazing in its amount than the means by which he reached it. His life is as instructive as are his labors, and both combined present an unequalled picture of triumph over obstacles which have been so rarely surmounted, and which fewer still have mastered to such advantage. . . . What a contrast between the deaf and dumb pauper boy of 1819, wheedled into a workhouse to keep him from hunger and fasting, cold and nakedness,' and the John Kitto of 1854,— Doctor of theology, though a layman, Member of the Society of Antiquaries, Editor of the Pictorial Bible and of the Biblical Encyclopædia, and author of the Daily Bible IIlustrations! The interval between the two extremes was long, and sometimes gloomy; yet he bore bravely up, with earnest resolution and strong faith in God."-Dr. Eadie.

HERBERT MARSH, D. D., 1757-1839, a learned Bishop of the English Church, studied first at Cambridge, and afterwards for several years at Göttingen. His principal works are A History of the Translations of the Holy Scriptures; Lectures on the Authenticity and Credibility of the New Testament; Lectures on a Systematic Arrangement of the Several Branches of Divinity; A Translation of J. D. Michaelis's Introduction to the New Testament, etc.

RICHARD MANT, D. D., 1776-1848, a learned Bishop of the English Church, did an eminent service in conjunction with Dr D'Oyley, in the preparation of a popular Commentary on the Scriptures, which has had an immense circulation. In addition to this he published The British Months, a Poem in 12 parts; Miscellaneous Poems; History of the Church of Ireland; and numerous other works of a religious character.. Some of Bishop Mant's Hymns are highly esteemed.

GEORGE D'OYLEY, D. D., 1778-1846, was a learned divine of the English Church. In conjunction with Bishop Mant he prepared The Annotated Bible, for the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. It was in 3 vols., 4to, and was a most elaborate work. The sale of it in England has been very large, and it was reprinted in the United States with additions by Bishop Hobart. Dr. D'Oyley was a contributor to the London

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