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Stanley, amidst the slain at Bosworth, with shouts of "Long live King Henry."

We have already told how Wycliff, in the 14th century, raised his voice against the growing evils and corruptions of the Church, as also how the note was taken up by the poets Longland and Chaucer, as well as the persecution which their followers the Lollards suffered under the first of the Lancastrian kings. As party feuds became more and more rife, the new faith obtained some respite; and so was gradually taking hold of a larger number of the people. And at the close of this period we find William Caxton bringing the printing press to our shores, which, by multiplying copies of Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales," and other such works, started that which was in after times to prove the means of enlightenment on all matters bearing upon human progress.

Of the literature of this period, which includes the greater part of the 15th century, little can be said. The sword was too busy to allow much leisure for the pen. The English tongue itself was in a state of uncertainty. This is seen very plainly in the doleful complaint of Caxton himself (who was not only a printer, but a most industrious translator); for we find him, when working upon a French translation of Virgil's Æneid, sadly in doubt whether to render the same into English, as tinged by "French affectation or by English pedantry:" that is to say, whether the new words and phrases introduced from the French should predominate, or the older ones of the mass of the people. In the one case, he knew full well his book would be in a tongue known only to the nobles and the educated, while in the other case, the readers would also be few, because so few had the interest or ability to read at all, but they would be of the working

people of the day. In addition, it must be mentioned that the tongue of one shire or district differed so much from another, that instances are not wanting in which the Kentish man utterly failed to make himself understood in London or Norwich, while one from York was deemed a foreigner in Devon or Cornwall.

In this dilemma Caxton was drawn by a strong inward liking, amounting to reverence, to the imitation of "that worshipful man, Geoffrey Chaucer, who ought eternally to be remembered;" and thus Caxton's press gave permanence to the pure yet bounteous English of our first great poet.

The history of the constitution and laws under the houses of Lancaster and York, may with some degree of accuracy be inferred from the existing state of things. When two parties are in sharp and continuous antagonism for some boon which the many have the power to give, it commonly happens that promises are made with a freedom that runs far ahead of the ability to perform. So it was with our rulers during this period. Each party was lavish in promises of equal laws and fair administration, although but little was done.

It was, however, well for England, not only that its "Great Charter" of rights and liberties had been obtained, but that it had in the parliament a power sufficiently independent to secure the faithful carrying out of its principles. Hence, we find all through the struggles for the crown that each party was anxious to secure parliamentary sanction to its claims.

In the reign of Henry IV. we find the commons going so far as to ask that their petitions should be answered bejore a vote of subsidy was passed. The king, it is true, declined to accede to the request, as contrary to "the

good customs and usages of his ancestors;" yet the temerity shown in doing that which had been declared treason in the reign of Richard II., showed an increased respect for parliamentary power. An important step was also gained somewhat later in the time of Edward IV., when regular statutes were made to take the place of proceeding by way of petition.

During the short reign of Richard III. the parliament was somewhat actively employed; the king showing an ability in advance of most of his predecessors. In this reign, a statute containing fifteen chapters, was framed and printed in English; enacting, amongst other useful measures, that all forced loans, which for some time had been collected under the name of benevolences, were illegal.

During this period the perbendicular Gothic style of architecture was encouraged. The most common material used was stone, although we find brick was coming into use. 'The walls of houses were still either left bare or covered with tapestry. The furniture used in the houses of the wealthy greatly improved during the later part of this period.

Notwithstanding the internal and external wars of the period, commerce contrived to make some advances; and the addition of gunpowder and guns to our exports is perhaps a significant fact. Many of our ports now had their merchant princes, while princes, and even crowned heads, were not above making gains by commercial enterprises. Thus, London had its Richard Whytington, "thrice lord mayor," so well known by the nursery legend of his cat; while Bristol had its William Canynge, whose best monument is the fine old church of St. Mary's, Redcliffe? But while these and many other commoners

were making princely fortunes, crowns and mitres were no bar to similar pursuits; for we find the Abbot of St. Alban's filling his coffers with the profits of his herring trade, chiefly carried on at Yarmouth, while it is also said that Edward IV. himself profited considerably by commercial undertakings.

With the wealth thus made in commerce and manufacture came a disposition to spend it upon ornaments and dress, by which the rich merchant might rival the noble born. Hence, we find sumptuary laws enacted from time to time, laying down what should or should not be worn by the several classes of society. In 1413 a law was passed allowing noblemen only to wear sable furs, or woollen cloth made out of England; and no labourer, servant, or artificer, might wear cloth costing more than two shillings a yard.

Chivalry, with its tournaments and other shows, was now well nigh extinct, commerce having taken its place as a serious occupation; while indoor hospitality, feasting, and its attendant minstrels, jugglers, and such like, were superseding it as a popular amusement. A coarse kind of drama had also risen into popularity, in the shape of miracle plays and mysteries. In these, scripture characters and the vices and virtues were personified; and events, both serious and comic, were acted before admiring crowds, assembled in the open air about the market-cross, or other places of common meeting.

And now, very briefly summing up, we may say that when Henry VII. came to the throne of England, he found a people with strong instincts and traditions, telling of freedom for itself and submission on the part of others. Its once high-spirited and numerous nobility, now vastly reduced in numbers, yet retaining something of

their old proud spirit; its middle class, wearied with wars from which they had little to gain and all to lose, had just begun to learn that breeding sheep, trading in wood, working in metals, were far more profitable and less dangerous occupations than fighting. And from among the mass of the people, many from being merely hewers of wood and drawers of water, were slowly rising to the rank of handicrafts-men, and were learning to work in wood and metals, in wool and linen. Others again took to fishing in the neighbouring seas; while the coal trade of Newcastle was rising to be one of national importance. Upon the throne of such a country, low as it in many respects was, yet even thus, one of the most advanced in Europe, Henry VII. (in the year 1485) found himself settled.

EXERCISES.-I. Define,-Leisure, translated, differed, reverence, accuracy, boon, independent, and sanction. 2. Give a short account of the employments and mode of living of the people in the 15th century. 3. Say under what conditions Henry VII. ascended the throne.

TENT OF ABRAHAM.

CHARLES SWAIN.

Wanderer, an unsettled traveller.
Assuaged, eased.

Quaffed, drank off in large
draughts.
Grateful, thankful.
Ire, fierce anger.
Installed, placed in a high posi-

tion.

Neglect, the leaving undone what ought to have been done.

Wayworn, tired with travelling.
Glare, a dazzling light.
Godless, taking no account of
God.

Mood, a frame of mind.
Gleam, a sudden ray of light.
Errors, wrong thinkings.
Rebuked, punished by words.
Worship, service paid to a su-
perior being.

The shadows of an eastern sky
Lengthened along the sandy way,--

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