their camp every night, as the savages of the falls islands and the Mwana Ntaba cannibals hovered constantly about them, launching their poisoned shafts incessantly. They passed 6 falls in this way, dragging their boats over 13 miles of tracks which they hewed for them with prodigious labor. From the beginning to the last of these falls the distance is 42 geographical miles. The last one is in latitude 0° 14′ 52" N. Above, the breadth of the river was 1,500 to 2,000 yards; below, large feeders began to pour into it, and islands covered its face, so that it soon had a breadth of 2 to 3 miles, and widened farther on to from 4 to 10 miles. They had reached the "great basin lying between the maritime and lake regions." In this part of the voyage they ran the gantlet through incessant attacking bands of cannibals. North of the equator they came to the second largest of the Congo's affluents, a magnificent river, 2,000 yards broad at the mouth, called the Aruwimi, which, Stanley conjectures, may be the Welle of Schweinfurth. At the confluence, in mid-stream, they withstood a most formidable attack, made by about 2,000 savages in 54 huge canoes. One of the canoes, driven by over 80 paddles and steered by 8 10-feet paddles, had through its centre a platform, upon which the chiefs executed a wardance, and another platform at the bow for 10 of the best warriors. In half an hour this fierce assault was successfully repulsed. They passed down the river for five days without molestation, being hidden from the sight of the savages by the islands which studded the bosom of the river. Hunger then drove them to land at a village, latitude 1° 40′ N., longitude 23° E., whose inhabitants were welldisposed; here they first heard the river called Congo. On February 14th, they were attacked by the fierce Mangalas, who were armed with muskets; they fought from noon till sundown. They then regained the current between the islands, which they had lost, and floated down four more days unobserved, the river being five to ten miles broad; they then encountered a friendly people, at a place called Ikengo, near where a great river, called Sankura, enters the Congo; this is doubtless identical with the lake noticed, under a similar name, by Cameron and Livingstone. Below, the Kassai empties into the Congo. This stream at its mouth seems nearly as great as the main river. Their waters do not mingle for 130 miles, below which the clear water of the Congo is turned light-brown by the muddy flood of its affluent. The next feeder is the Kwango, a deep stream, 500 yards wide, which enters through a ridge of hills. Six miles below here they were attacked for the last time. Below this point commenced the lower series of falls and rapids, extending 180 miles, and embracing 62 cataracts, with a total fall which Stanley estimates at 585 feet.

In the passage of these cataracts, owing to the inaccuracies of the chart with which he was provided, the party passed through a series

of mishaps, in which 16 lives were lost, including that of the gallant English companion of Stanley, Francis Pocock, who was drowned in one of the 30 cataracts and rapids which were marked as a single one in the map. They were five months in working their way through this region for a distance of 180 miles; and at last, hearing that there were still five more falls below, they drew up the boats above Isangila cataract. Their trade-goods and ivory were expended, and they were living on short rations; but two merchants of Bomba, or Emboma, as it is also called, responded to Stanley's request sent by messengers, with full supplies of food. The 8th of August they marched into Bomba, and on the 13th they arrived at Kabinda, at the mouth of the Congo. It was 34 months since Stanley had left Bagamoyo with 300 Zanzibar negroes. Of these, 186, and his single European attendant, had died or been killed. At Kabinda he fell in with the Portuguese exploring expedition, Major Serpa Pinto and Captain Brito Capello. Stanley's voyage on the Congo, which occupied nine months, was the most difficult enterprise accomplished by him, and can be compared with any recent exploration in the difficulties overcome, and the dangers passed, and in the importance of the results as well. The whole length of the river, from the point where it issues out of Lake Bangweolo as the Luapala, is about 2,400 miles. The length before unexplored, from Nyangwe, the last point reached by Livingstone and Cameron, to Yellala falls, 100 miles from the mouth, the easternmost point attained by Captain Tuckey, in 1816, is 1,700 miles. This journey first settles the identity of the Lualaba with the Zaire or Congo. Its course is nearly northward as far as the equator, and then northwest until it mounts to latitude 1° 45′ N., a parallel which strikes near the centre of Lake Albert; the second half of its course is in the main southwestward down to the sea. The highest rise of the river was from 20 to 50 feet in the narrows, and 12 feet in the broad parts; it took place from the 8th to the 22d of May. Ivory was found in great abundance, and oil-palms were seen in extensive groves. Copper and gold fields were heard of. The tribes through whose country he passed were for the most part cannibals, and wily and skillful warriors. The travelers were attacked with spears, assegays, poisoned arrows, muskets; at one time their foes surrounded the camp with hidden nets, at others they drove pointed sticks, dipped in poison, into the ground, that the defenders of the camp might wound themselves while repelling attacks. In some cases, however, he succeeded in establishing friendly relations with the natives, and found them intelligent, trustful, kindhearted, and eager for trade. Stanley believes that the trader can do more to civilize the negroes of Western Africa, who are divided up into little tribes and clans; while the missionary's field is in the large despotic kingdoms on

Dr. Emil Holub, an intrepid Bohemian traveler, made a third journey into the heart of Africa from the southeast, which lasted from March, 1875, till November, 1876. His course was from the salt basin of Moffato, by way of the town of Molema (Molapo), to the town of Moila (Linokana); from Linokana by the Dwar mountains, along the Limpopo, and by the Sirorumé, to Shoshong; from Shoshong to the small river of Panda ma Tenka, passing along the vast group of saline basins in the middle of East Africa; from the Panda ma Tenka, by the confluence of the Chobé and the Zambesi, to Shesheke; from the Panda ma Tenka to the Victoria cataract; from Shesheke to the country south of Barotse; from the Panda ma Tenka across the Nata river, and along the Maïtangwe, to the Makalaka country, and, by way of Tati, back to Shoshong. Dr. Holub mastered the most widely spoken languages, and gathered information from the natives concerning the whole region between the Zambesi and lakes Bangweolo and Nyassa. He reports that the Maïtangwe river, which is the "soul" of Makalaka land, loses itself in a marshy plain, that is entirely dry in winter. He says that there exist seven different varieties of rhinoceros in Africa, and asserts that he has found four distinct varieties of the lion and three of

the elephant. He made careful ethnographical studies, and brought away many objects illustrating the customs of the people. The enthusiastic explorer has defrayed his expenses with the earnings of his profession, that of a physician, which he practised in the intervals of his expeditions in the diamond placers of South Africa.

The French in an expedition up the Ogowe, under Count Savorgnan di Brazza, who was accompanied by Dr. Ballay and M. Marche, were impeded in their journey up the river at first through the hostility of the natives, the failure of supplies, and the sickness of the members. They succeeded in establishing amicable relations with most of the tribes, and thus unwillingly brought upon themselves the enmity of those hostile to their friends. The natives zealously aided them in transporting their baggage, except when retarded by the menaces of their enemies or their own cupidity. They established their first base of operations at Lope, the quartermaster Hamon remaining to watch over the stores. M. di Brazza set out alone at the end of April, 1876, with his two Senegalese attendants and a Pahuin interpreter. Ascending through the country of the warlike Ossyebas, who attacked the expedition of Compiègne and Marche, to the mouth of the Ivindo, he entered,

on the 2d of June, the unexplored region. He established friendly relations with the inhabitants-the Ossyebas and Adumas-although he was impelled to kill the chief of one of the Ossyeba villages, who behaved in a surly and threatening manner, and to have an Aduma chief beaten by his attendants. When he was taken with vomiting, after having had the chief Dyamba bound, the natives attributed his sickness to the etish, or enchantment of Dyamba; it was this same negro whom he afterward killed in the act of overturning his boat. Leaving this village, he commenced to descend the river with only his two attendants, but the same day met Dr. Ballay with twenty-three laden canoes. Brazza was very ill at this time, yet they proceeded upward as far as the village Ngeme in the Aduma country. M. Marche explored the river above that point, beyond the entrance of the Sibe and the cataract of Dume, as far as the point where a river called the Kileï flows in, the eastern boundary of the country of the Alzanas, lat. 1° 16' S., 1° 48′ E. of Lope. He went a short distance above the confluence, and reached his farthest point the 26th of September. Beyond the Ivindo the direction of the river's course changes from east and west to northwest, ascending in the direction of the river Congo. Above the fall of Buwe they had encountered many strong rapids, extending for a long distance; again beyond the Dume cataract, which has a considerable fall, there were many more rapids. The necessity of carrying a large amount of merchandise, beside their accoutrements, made their progress slow and difficult. Dr. Ballay had long to wait for the departure of Okandas, a tricky and avaricious race, who trade with the interior. They conveyed the stores as far as Ngeme. The intrigues of these people prevented the other tribes from assisting as much as they would have done. M. di Brazza must descend to Lope again with the Okanda boatmen, in order to protect them from the Ossyebas, and there had to wait three or four months for the floods to cease on the river. He acquired considerable authority among the negro tribes, and intermediated in their quarrels. His person was always respected, and he assumed, like the native chiefs, a staff for his messengers, which was always held inviolate. He made friends with the Ossyebas, who had shown themselves hostile in the beginning. This tribe he identifies with the Fans of the Mundah river, and with the Pahuins, and conjectures that they may belong to the same race with the Niam-niams encountered by Schweinfurth on the Welle. He describes them as exceedingly bellicose and courageous. The Ossyeba chiefs told him that they were his friends, but would not be friends with the Okandas, who before they, the Ossyebas, had guns (about 1860), robbed them of their wives and children, and massacred their men. He purchased several slaves from the interior, who would have an interest in ascending the river, not being able

to depend further on the Okandas; to these slaves he offered their liberty, but they staid by him. Dr. Ballay removed the effects from Ngeme as far as the Dume cataract. They expected to depart for the interior by the opening of the dry season, about the middle of May. They had explored the Ogowe so far about 500 miles. M. Marche returned to Europe in October. He expressed the opinion that the Ogowe would be found to be a mouth of the Congo, branching off further to the north, but did not think it probable that the expedition would be able to penetrate much farther into the interior. Dr. Lenz divides the multitude of small peuplades who inhabit the basin of the Ogowe into three classes: 1. The aboriginal inhabitants, who have been dispersed and displaced in the successive immigrations, to which class belong the scattered Abongo (Akkoa) people, the so-called dwarf races. 2. The people whose occupation dates back hundreds of years, which class includes (a) all the Mpongwe or Gaboon tribes, such as the Mpongwes, Orungus, Iningas, Ncomis, Ajumbas, and (b) all the Okanda tribes, as the Okotas, Yalimbongos, Apinshis, Okandas, Asimbas, etc. 3. Those who have intruded within the last 20 or 30 years; such are the Akelle tribes, among which are the Mbangwes, which tribe came probably from the south, and such also the Fans, who are also called the Ossyebas and Mpangwes. The southern limits of the Fan nations may be set at the right bank of the Ogowe river, whose course ranges between the equator and lat. 1° S.; they extend northward up to lat. 4° or 5° N. They have a few settlements on the coast. They extend eastward far back into the unexplored country, and are undoubtedly nearly related to the Niamniams and the Monbuttus of Schweinfurth. They seem to belong to a great family of tribes, which occupy a broad belt stretching entirely across equatorial Africa; as tribes have been found in widely separated regions showing strong analogies in their form and characteristics, all of them cannibals, and possessing the same arts, particularly great skill in working iron, giving the same forms to their weapons, and showing other resemblances.

In a hypsometric map of equatorial Africa, from 15° N. latitude to 15° S. latitude, which has been prepared by Guido Cora, the following elevations are distinguished: (a) depressions below the level of the sea, to wit, the salty flats around Lakes Alelbad and Assal near the coast of Abyssinia; (b) from the level of the sea to 500 metres, embracing the great depressions of lake Tsad and that of the White Nile as far as Gondokoro, the eastern littoral of the continent, and the basin through which run the Ogowe, the Congo, and the Lualaba; (c) from 500 to 1,000 metres above the level of the sea, which includes the whole interior from the lake-region to the Atlantic coast lands, from the basin of the Congo on the south, whose northern limit nearly coincides with the equator, up to about latitude 8° N., with a

tract running up to Egyptian Soudan between the White Nile and Tsad basins, taking in a good part of Darfur and Wadai, also strips lying back of the eastern coast, and below the Congo basin, and one dividing the interior basin from the Loango coast; (d) above 1,000 metres above the ocean-level, including the great lake region, with a tract extending northward up to and around the higher parts of Abyssinia and Shoa, and another running across the continent below latitude 10° S. This latter is a great, curved, irregular belt running from the Red Sea to the Benguela coast, incasing the highlands of Nubia and Abyssinia, which include the greater part of the lands of Davro, Waratta, Shoa, and the central part of Abyssinia, and the mountain systems among the lakes; these regions range from 2,000 to 3,000 metres altitude. In the Abyssinian region are several mountainous groups which surpass 3,000 metres in altitude, also the single peaks Gambaragare by Lake Victoria Nyanza (4,000 to 4,500 metres) and Livingstone by Lake Tanganyika (3,600 to 3,800 metres), and in the Kenia system, Mounts Kenia (5,500 metres) and Kilima Njaro (about 5,500 metres), which two, with Mount Wosho in Abyssinia (5,060 metres), are the only elevations which rise above 5,000 metres that are known. The expanse of territory, between the 15th parallels above and below the equator, which rises above 1,000 metres is less than the area of from 500 to 1,000 metres elevation, and greater than that below the plane of 500 metres above the

sea.

Rev. S. Macfarlane, in a voyage along the southern coast of New Guinea, in the steamer Ellangowan, found, at the eastern side of Hood Bay, a lagoon, 15 miles in circumference, into which a river flows, which rises behind the Astrolabe range, and is 80 yards wide and 8 yards deep at its mouth. Farther eastward, near Dufaure Island, he discovered a fine harbor, 8 miles by 4, and 8 to 10 fathoms in depth. Along the coast from Amazon Bay to China Straits, the natives are more numerous and more intelligent and healthy. They had a very fine quality of flax. Baron Schleinitz, who was a member of the Gazelle expedition, found the natives of McCluer Gulf and Melanasia very different from the true Papuans of the interior of New Guinea. The complexion of the inhabitants of New Hanover and New Ireland was a rusty brown, and sometimes hardly darker than that of the people of Southern Europe. They were a remarkably wellbuilt race. Only those in the south of New Ireland and New Britannia resembled the Papuans of northwestern New Guinea. They are divided into numberless tribes, and each one speaks a different language. Their boats are too light for the open sea. The men go naked. The women have strings about the waist, or aprons of bass, cut their hair short, and wear ponderous leaves as sun-shades. Their ornaments are pearls, shells, teeth, and tortoise

shell. The chiefs wear feather plumes, and sometimes collars ornamented with rows of teeth. They pay much attention to their headgear, sometimes dyeing one side of the head white, the other red, and the top yellow; great wigs are also worn, particularly in New Britannia. Teeth, thorns, etc., are stuck through the nostrils. The natives of McCluer Gulf are, in part, mixed with Malays. They are dolichocephalous, and 1.595 metre tall on the average. Dr. Miklucho Maklay describes some additional customs of the Papuans. They do not celebrate a birth or a death with any ceremony, but have a rite for circumcision. They prepare a beverage by masticating leaves and young shoots of the cocoa-palm. He thinks the Papuan language does not contain over 1,000 roots. The island of Yap in the Caroline group, it appears, is inhabited by Papuans, who, though less civilized, seem to dominate the neighboring islanders. After an extended tour through the Malay peninsula, this courageous Russian traveler returned to his old quarters on the coast of New Guinea, where he was warmly welcomed back by the natives. The maize introduced by him in 1872 is thriving finely. An earthquake has destroyed a number of villages on the hills.

Don F. P. Moreno, the Argentine explorer, visited, in the beginning of the year, the partly unexplored lakes which form the sources of the Santa Cruz, in Patagonia. He ascended the Rio Santa Cruz in a boat, with one companion, three boatmen, and two servants with the horses. The head of the river was reached with difficulty on account of the rapid current. The lake from which the river emerges lies in latitude 50° 14′ 20′′ S., longitude 71° 59′ W. from Greenwich. He then crossed a tableland of 2,500 to 3,000 feet elevation in a northerly course. It belongs to the tertiary period. Crossing the Chalia-a river described by Viedma in the last century, whose existence was questioned by Captain Muster, and which Moreno had explored from its junction with the Chico, for 90 miles, a few weeks before he then came to a series of lagoons, surrounded by pasture-land, and to the west of these to a hitherto undiscovered lake surrounded by snow-capped mountains, 3,000 to 5,000 feet high, which he supposes to be an arm of a still larger lake. The latitude was 49° 12′ S. He named it the Lago San Martin. Returning southward through a fertile valley, and crossing a mountain plain of basaltic character, he came to Viedma's Lake, discovered by that traveler in 1782, which is falsely called Capar Lake on the maps. It was the largest lake he had seen. It extends to the foot of the cordillera, the active volcano Chalten rising from its upper end. From the southern end, a river 200 yards in width issues, latitude 49° 48′ S., connecting it with the lake out of which the Santa Cruz flows; it enters the latter lake in latitude 50° 11'. As this lake, which, being distinct from Viedma's, wanted a name, he gave that of the

Argentine Lake. Huge masses of ice were observed floating in the lake. The Santa Cruz was much flooded on the return voyage, showing a depth of 70 to 84 feet, and the boat drifted down with terrific rapidity, making the distance in 24 hours which had taken them a month to ascend.

J. B. Minchin, an English engineer, has corrected some of the altitudes in the Andes as follows: Lake Titicaca, 12,545 feet; Alto de la Paz, 13,389 feet; Plaza Mayor, La Paz, 11,946 feet; Peak of Illimani, 21,224 feet. Aconcagua, in Chili, appears then to be the highest summit of the Andes (by Fitz Roy, 23,910 feet); Humboldt's height of Chimborazo is 21,422 feet. Mr. Minchin ascertained the elevations above the sea-level by Casella's boiling-point thermometer. Assisted by Commander Musters, he has made a new map of Bolivia, after a thorough survey based upon astronomical observations.

The late Prof. Orton, of Vassar College, had started on an expedition to examine the important tributaries of the Beni, especially the Madre de Dios and the Ynambari, when he was seized with the malady which carried him off at the very threshold of his discoveries, while crossing Lake Titicaca. This is the most important region in South America yet unexplored. He started for the mouth of the Beni, up the Mamore River, in May, 1877. A freshet, which destroyed many of his instruments and stores, and the mutiny and desertion of his attendants, compelled him to give up the exploration of the Beni; so he concluded to explore the smaller Canpolican. He had arrived at Apollobamb, near the boundary of Peru and Bolivia, in the latter part of August, and his unexpected death took place on September 25th. The following corrections in latitudes and longitudes have been made by Commander F. M. Green, for the Hydrographical Bureau in Washington, by the aid of the newly laid telegraphs to the West Indies and Panama; the places are all north of the equator, and the longitudes are reckoned west from Greenwich: Havana (Morro lighthouse), latitude 23° 9' 20.98", longitude 82° 21' 30"; Santiago de Cuba (Blanca battery), latitude 20° 0' 16.4", longitude 75° 50′ 30.15"; Kingston (Port Royal flagstaff), latitude 17° 55′ 55.8", longitude 76° 50′ 37.8"; Aspinwall (lighthouse), latitude 9° 22′ 8.8", longitude 79° 54′ 44.7"; Panama (south tower of the cathedral), latitude 8° 57′ 6.15", longitude 79° 32′ 12.3"; San Juan de Puerto Rico (Morro lighthouse), latitude 18° 28′ 55.86", longitude 66° 7′ 27.75"; St. Thomas (Fort Christian), latitude 18° 20' 23.15", longitude 64° 55′ 52.5"; Santa Cruz (Lang's observatory), latitude 17° 44' 42.7", longitude 64° 41' 17.4"; St. Pierre, Martinique (St. Martha battery), latitude 14° 43′ 53.9", longitude 61° 11' 11.7"; Bridgetown, Barbadoes (Rickett's battery), latitude 13° 5' 42.5", longitude 59° 37' 18.45"; Port Spain, Trinidad (water battery), latitude 10° 38' 39.21", longitude 61° 30' 38.4".

The Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories was inaugurated at the time when Nebraska was received into the Union, $5,000 being appropriated for the purpose of surveying the new State in the year 1867; Dr. F. V. Hayden was then appointed superintendent of the works. In 1868 the same sum was granted, and the labor was extended over a part of Wyoming Territory. In 1869 the survey was organized in its present shape, and placed under the control of the Department of the Interior, the appropriation being doubled; the work of the year was a reconnaissance of Cheyenne, in Wyoming, along the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains to Santa Fé, in New Mexico. In 1870 the work took larger dimensions; and, with 20 surveyors, a portion of Wyoming Territory and a belt along the Union Pacific Railroad line were measured. In 1871 the Expedition investigated a part of the region drained by the sources of the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers, with a strip up the Yellowstone from Fort Ellis; a trip was also made to Yellowstone Lake and the Geysers on Fire-Hole River; the descriptions of the Yellowstone region created a sensation in Europe as well as in America, and a part of the wonderful country was reserved by Congress as the "National Park." The Expedition was divided in the following year into two parties, each having a geologist, topographer, meteorologist, and naturalist. One division made a detailed survey of the head-sources of the Yellowstone, Gallatin, and Madison Rivers; the other reconnoitred the head of Snake River, or the Lewis Fork of the Columbia, and a little-known part of Idaho and Wyoming Territories. The survey in 1873 was extended into Colorado, and a systematic triangulation of the east front of the Rocky Mountains was begun, which was afterward extended over the entire Territory. The topographical corps was increased, and divided into five parties; 21,000 square miles were measured, and 300 geodetical stations located, most of them on the highest peaks of the Rocky Mountains. In 1874 two new divisions were added, one to examine the land and water communications in the parts already surveyed, and the other for the investigation of the geology of the Elk range. In this year 19,000 square miles were surveyed, the greater portion of the area being in the lofty San Juan Mountains; in this year the ruins in southwest Colorado were examined and described by W. H. Jackson. In 1875 the work was extended westward into Utah, and southward toward New Mexico, and covered 24,000 square miles. The explorations in 1876 are described in detail in the last volume of the CYCLOPÆDIA.

The list of summits in Colorado surpassing 10,000 feet, as published by Mr. Wilson, includes 39 names. Those of above 14,000 feet in altitude are the following 17: Blanca Peak, 14,413; Mount Harvard, 14,375; Massive Mount, 14,368; Torrey's Peak, 14,336; Mount Evans, 14,330; La Plata Mount, 14,311, Mount Lin