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in the reorganization of the army planned over four years ago. Preparations continued throughout March and April, and on April 24th Russia declared war against Turkey, and the Russian troops crossed the Pruth. (See TURKEY.) In the beginning of May, the Emperor, who had reviewed the army at Kishenev previous to the crossing of the Pruth, returned to St. Petersburg. He was everywhere received with great demonstrations of joy, and particularly at Moscow, where he held a reception of the estates, whom he addressed thus: Six months ago I expressed a hope here that the Eastern Question would be peacefully solved. I wished to the extreme limit to spare my subjects' blood, but my efforts have been fruitless. God has decided otherwise. The Kishenev Manifesto announced to Europe that the foreseen moment had come. Entire Russia, and Moscow among the foremost, responded to my expectations. happy to be able, in concert with the Empress, to thank the Muscovites for their patriotism, which they have testified by acts. The spirit of sacrifice and devotion of which Russia is giving proof exceeds my utmost hopes. May God help us to accomplish

our mission!

am now

Quite a number of trials of socialists took place in 1877. The first of these was of a number of students, who on December 18, 1876, the name-day of the Grand-duke Nicholas, arranged a riotous demonstration in front of the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg. Of the prisoners, 21 in number, 18 received various severe sentences, while three were acquitted.

This trial was followed by one in March of 150 persons of both sexes in Moscow. These persons had formed themselves into a secret brotherhood, known as the Propagandists. The real origin of the society, or rather its introduction into Russia, for it is undoubtedly an offshoot of the Commune of Zurich and Paris, is a matter of doubt; but as fast as members were enrolled they bound themselves to give all their property into the common fund, and devoted themselves to the making of converts to the doctrines of the Propaganda. These were simple in the extreme. First, everything was to be broken down. There were to be no individual property, no religion, no government, no laws, and no class distinctions of any tion of Adam and Eve, excepting in the matsort. Everybody was to return to the conditer of clothing. They all starting even, all were to work. Strange to say, the movement began among the higher classes and spread downward. Some of the wealthiest and proudest families of Russia were represented in it. While many of the members ostensibly retained their former habits of life, and sought to influence those with whom they came into contact, there were others who were too impatient for this kind of work, and sought employment as factory hands, spreading their doctrines among their companions in the night time. The first news received by the Government was from a workman in a factory near Moscow, who brought to the police authorities a number of

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SAFVET PASHA, a Turkish statesman, was born in 1816. He entered the service of the Government, as a translator, at an early age, was afterward secretary to the Sultan Abdul Medjid, and then became an influential member of the Imperial Council. During the Crimean War he was Commissioner of the Danubian Principalities; in 1858 he acted as chairman of the commission which regulated the relations of Moldavia and Wallachia, and from 1865 to 1866 was Turkish embassador in Paris. He had previously been Under-Secretary of State in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and after his return from Paris he was successively Minister of Commerce and Public Works, of Justice and of Education, and on several occasions Minister of Foreign Affairs. This position he held for the last time from 1876 to 1877, and in virtue of his office presided at the Conference of Constantinople held in December, 1876, and January, 1877. The reverses of Abdul VOL. XVII.-44 A

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reported without work in April, the largest factories were almost all closed, and mercantile failures increased with alarming rapidity. In the manufacturing districts of Poland, over half of the workmen were also without work, and in consequence exposed to starvation.

Kerim, and the removal of the latter from the chief command, caused his retirement from office in July, 1877. He was succeeded by Aarifi Pasha.

SCHURZ, CARL, an American statesman, Secretary of the Interior. He was born at Liblar, near Cologne, Prussia, March 2, 1829. He was educated at the Gymnasium of Cologne and the University of Bonn, which he entered in 1846. At the outbreak of the revolution of 1848 he joined Gottfried Kinkel, Professor of Rhetoric in the university, in the publication of a liberal newspaper, of which for a time he was the sole conductor. In the spring of 1849, in consequence of an unsuccessful attempt to promote an insurrection at Bonn, he fled with Kinkel to the Palatinate, entered the revolutionary army as adjutant, and took part in the defense of Rastadt. On the surrender of that fortress, he escaped to Switzerland. In 1850 he returned secretly to Germany, and, with ad

mirable skill and self-devotion, effected the escape of Kinkel from the fortress of Spandau, where he had been condemned to twenty years' imprisonment. In the spring of 1851 he was in Paris, acting as correspondent for German journals, and he afterward spent a year in teaching in London. He came to the United States in 1852, resided three years in Philadelphia, and then settled in Madison, Wis. In the presidential canvass of 1856 he delivered speeches in German in behalf of the Republican party, and in the following year was defeated as a candidate for Lieutenant-Governor of Wisconsin. During the contest between Mr. Douglas and Mr. Lincoln for the office of United States Senator from Illinois, in 1858, he delivered his first speech in the English language, which was widely republished. Soon after he removed to Milwaukee, and began the practice of law. In the winter of 1859-'60 he made a lecture tour in New England, and aroused attention by a speech delivered in Springfield, Mass., against the ideas and policy of Mr. Douglas. He was an influential member of the Republican National Convention of 1860, being largely instrumental in determining that portion of the platform relating to citizens of foreign origin, and spoke both in English and German during the canvass which followed. President Lincoln appointed him Minister to Spain, which post he resigned in December, 1861, in order to enter the army. In April, 1862, he was commissioned brigadier-general of volunteers, and on June 17th assumed command of a division in the corps of General Sigel, with which he took part in the second battle of Bull Run. He was made major-general, March 14, 1863, and at the battle of Chancellorsville commanded a division of General Howard's corps (the 11th), which was routed by Jackson. He had temporary command of the 11th Corps at the battle of Gettysburg, and subsequently took part in the battle of Chattanooga. On the close of the war he returned to the practice of law. In 1865-'66 he was the Washington correspondent of the New York Tribune, and in 1866 he made a report, as special commissioner appointed by President Johnson, on the condition of the Southern States, which was submitted to Congress. In the same year he removed to Detroit, where he founded the Detroit Post, and in 1867 he became editor of the Westliche Post, a German newspaper, published in St. Louis. He was temporary chairman of the Republican National Convention in Chicago in 1868, and labored earnestly in the succeeding canvass for the election of General Grant. In January, 1869, he was chosen United States Senator from Missouri, for the term ending in 1875. He opposed some of the leading measures of President Grant's administration, and in 1872 took a prominent part in the organization of the Liberal party, presiding over the convention in Cincinnati which nominated Horace Greeley for the presidency. He visited Europe in 1873, and again in 1875, being received with much

consideration in his native country. On his return he took part in the political canvass in Ohio, in which he opposed strenuously the increase of the national currency.

In the presidential campaign of 1876, Mr. Schurz made speeches in various parts of the country in favor of the election of Governor Hayes; and in March following he was made Secretary of the Interior in the President's cabinet.

SEMMES, RAPHAEL, an officer in the Confederate navy, died at Point Clear, Ala., August 30th. He was born in Charles County, Md., September 27, 1809, and entered the United States navy as a midshipman in 1826, became lieutenant in 1837, and commander in 1855. In 1834, while awaiting orders, he studied law, and was admitted to the bar at Cumberland, Md. During the Mexican War he served both on board ship, and as an aide to General Worth. On the outbreak of the civil war he resigned the secretaryship of the Lighthouse Board at Washington, took command of the Confederate steamer Sumter at New Orleans, ran the blockade at the mouth of the Mississippi, and in July, 1861, captured several American merchant vessels in the Gulf. He then went to Southampton, England, where he was for some time closely watched by the United States steamer Tuscarora. When he put to sea the Tuscarora was detained 24 hours by the British authorities; but she followed him to the Straits of Gibraltar, and so closely blockaded him in the port of Tangier that he sold his vessel and returned to England. In August, 1862, he took command of the steamer Alabama, built for him at Birkenhead, England, and manned by an English crew, and continued his career of capturing and destroying merchant vessels. On January 11, 1863, off Galveston, Texas, he engaged the United States gunboat Hatteras, and after a short action sunk her. On June 19, 1864, in an engagement nine miles off the harbor of Cherbourg, France, the United States steamer Kearsarge, Captain Winslow, sunk the Alabama. Semmes was taken up by the English yacht Deerhound, and carried to England. After the close of the war he entered upon the practice of law in Mobile, Ala. He was arrested and taken to Washington in December, 1864, but was imprisoned only four months. He delivered public lectures on his exploits, and published "Service afloat and ashore during the Mexican War " (1851), "Campaign of General Scott in the Valley of Mexico" (1852), “The Cruise of the Alabama and the Sumter" (London and New York, 1864), and "Memoirs of Service afloat during the War between the States" (Baltimore, 1869).

SERVIA, a principality of Southeastern Europe. Prince, Milan IV. Obrenovitch, born in 1854; succeeded to the throne by the election of the Servian National Assembly, after the assassination of his uncle, Prince Michael Obrenovitch, June, 1868; was crowned at Bel

grade, and assumed the Government, August 22, 1872; was married October 17, 1875, to Natalie de Keshko, the daughter of a Russian nobleman; offspring of the union is a son, Prince Alexander, born August 14, 1876. The area of Servia is 14,606 square miles; population in 1876, 1,366,923. According to the budget for the year 1875-'76, the revenue was 35,256,692 tax piastres " (1 piastre = 4 cents), and the expenditures 34,806,884 piastres. A loan was contracted in 1876 in consequence of the war, the amount of which, however, is not known. The number of taxable persons in 1875 was 287,047. The imports in 1874 amounted to 32,456,362 francs, the exports to 39,001,878 francs, and the transit trade to 6,631,000 francs.

According to the new organization introduced after the conclusion of the armistice in

1876, the Servian army is composed: 1. Of the standing and regular army (4 battalions infantry of 400 men each, and two squadrons cavalry of 96 men each); 2. The active army, comprising the former militia or the national army of the 1st ban; 3. The reserve, comprising the 2d and 3d bans of the national army.

Toward the close of January, Midhat Pasha, the Turkish Grand-Vizier, addressed a note to Prince Milan, inviting him to conclude peace. In the beginning of February, the Porte proposed the following conditions to Servia, waiving its former claim for substantial guarantees: 1. The right of being diplomatically represented at Belgrade. 2. That Jews and Armenians shall enjoy the same rights as native Servians. 3. That Servia shall not allow the formation of armed bands or the violation of Turkish territory. 4. That the existence of secret socie

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ties shall not be permitted. 5. That the Servian fortresses shall be kept in good repair; and, finally, that the Turkish flag shall be hoisted upon those fortresses jointly with the Servian flag. The Servians declared it impossible to discuss the stipulation for granting privileges to Jews and Armenians equal to those enjoyed by other Servian subjects. The opposition to the Jews came from a combination of merchants in Belgrade, who were connected with and influenced the body in Servia which furnishes cabinets to both political parties. The Jews had connections which would enable them to import goods and merchandise direct from the manufacturers in France, England, and Norway, while the Servian merchants were only known and credited in Austria. Under such circumstances the Jews could greatly undersell the native merchants in the

interior, and for this reason the Servian Government placed restrictions on Jewish citizens. On February 14th, a deputation from Servia, with Senator Christitch at its head, set out for Constantinople to conduct the peace negotiations, while on the same day the Great Skupshtina was convoked to meet on February 27th. This body, which has four times as many members as the ordinary Legislature, is called together only on extraordinary occasions. In the latter part of the month a complete agreement was effected between the Porte and the Servian agents. On February 27th the Skupshtina met and organized by the election of Topuzovitch as President. On the following day Prince Milan with his ministers appeared before the assembly, and having declared it formally opened, began his address, which lasted for about one hour. He urged the members

in the latter part of December, 1876, but had been at that time induced by the Prince to retain office during the pending negotiations with Turkey, again offered its resignation, which was this time definitely refused by the Prince.

In the latter part of August it seemed as if Servia was about to resume the war against Turkey. Troops were sent to the front, all the commanders were ordered to their posts, while in Belgrade ministerial councils were held almost daily under the presidency of Prince Milan, to consider the question of peace or war. The relations with Turkey grew more warlike every day, until, on December 14th, Prince Milan again declared war. (See TURKey.)

to agree to the treaty, stating that Turkey would not renew the armistice if the offer was rejected. M. Ristitch then read the conditions of peace. Some of the deputies interrupted the reading, and asked if Servia was concluding peace with the knowledge and consent of Russia. The majority of the members silenced the interruptions, and M. Ristitch declared that the war began with the consent of the previous Skupshtina, and that peace would be concluded with the full consent of Russia. The conditions of peace were as follows: The frontier lines remain as before the war. The condition of the Jews being an internal matter, the Turks would not insist upon the further discussion of the subject. The Turkish flag will SHACHOVSKI, Prince ALEXIS, was born in be hoisted on the Servian fortresses by the 1812, and belongs to a family which traces its side of the Servian ensign. The residence of direct descent in the male line to Rurik, the the Turkish agent at Belgrade remains an open founder of Russia. Prince Shachovski did not question, to be subsequently arranged between enter the army until 1837, being then 25 years the Servian and Turkish Governments. The old. He served with distinction in the CauTurks are to commence evacuating the Servian casus, was appointed major - general in the territory, and to complete the evacuation with- suite of the Emperor in 1860, lieutenant-genin twelve days. The Skupshtina voted affirm- eral in 1868, and in 1876 received the command atively upon every article. At the conclusion of the 11th Corps. In the second battle of of the vote the Prince congratulated the as- Plevna, which resulted so disastrously for the sembly on the completion of their labors, and Russians, he commanded the left wing. After declared the mission of the Great Skupshtina this unfortunate action his name was no longer to be at an end. M. Ristitch then read the mentioned. He was but the nominal comPrince's decree dissolving the assembly, which mander of the 11th Corps, which was divided produced a sensation among the deputies, but among different posts at the seat of war. they obeyed it. The ministry thus achieved a decided success in getting rid of the deputies without giving them an opportunity of asking any embarrassing questions they had prepared. The treaty of peace was signed at Constantinople on March 1st.

The Skupshtina was opened on July 2d by Prince Milan. In his speech from the throne he referred to the war of 1876, and said that in concluding peace in the beginning of the year he had transferred the cause of the Oriental Christians into stronger hands, and that even at the present time the flags of the victorious Czar were floating on the Servian border. He referred to his visit to the Czar at Ployeshti, and said that the latter had assured him of his interest in and care for the Servian nation. He said nothing, however, of his relation to the Porte, nor of Servian neutrality. The sessions of the Skupshtina were held at Kraguyevatz with closed doors, and were guarded by large bodies of troops, so that but little of its transactions became known. This little, however, sufficed to show that stormy scenes were of frequent occurrence, and that the Government met with a strong opposition. Having sanctioned the military measures proposed by the Government, and having rejected the proposition to pay no more tribute to the Porte, the Skupshtina was closed in the latter part of July. The Prince immediately ordered the mobilization of the first class of the militia, while the standing army was sent to the frontier.

In August, the ministry, which had resigned

SHERMAN, JOHN, Secretary of the Treasury of the United States. He was born at Lancaster, Ohio, May 10, 1823, and is a younger brother of General W. T. Sherman. He was admitted to the bar in 1844, and became a partner of his brother, Charles T. Sherman, afterward Judge of the United States District Court. He was a delegate to the Whig conventions of 1848 and 1852. In 1854 he was elected a member of the 34th Congress, and was reelected to the 35th and 36th Congresses. He was the Republican candidate for Speaker in the 36th Congress, and, after a protracted contest, failed of election by one or two votes. He was then made chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means. In 1860 he was again elected to Congress, but in 1861 he was chosen to succeed Salmon P. Chase in the United States Senate. He was reëlected Senator in 1867 and in 1873. During his entire Senatorial career he was chairman of the Committee on Finance, and served also on the Committees on Agriculture (of which he was chairman), the Pacific Railroad, the Judiciary, and the Patent Office. When the doubt concerning the Presidential election of 1876 began to clear away, public opinion, with marked unanimity, centred upon Senator Sherman as the probable man for Secretary of the Treasury, and for this position he was selected by President Hayes.

SHUVALOFF, Count PETER, the Russian embassador in London, is considered, like General Ignatieff, one of the foremost diplomatists of Russia, and is now 49 years old, having been born in 1828. Although not advancing as

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