Climate. The climate of Alaska presents marked diversities. In the southeastern and southern part of the Territory the annual rainfall is heavy, sometimes exceeding 100 inches, and is distributed through every month of the year. The summers are cool and humid, the winters mild, with an increased rainfall and light snow at sea level. In the mountains the snowfall is excessive. On the shores of Bering Sea and the Aleutian Islands the summers are cold and humid, the winters prolonged, with rain and snow, but the temperature is not low, and not marked by great variations. In the interior, especially on the Yukon, the summers are short, dry, and hot; the winters long and extremely cold, but the snowfall is not heavy. The climate of the southeastern and southern shore, including the Aleutian Islands, although humid, is especially favorable to health.

Inhabitants.-The natives belong to two great stocks, the Eskimo and the Indian. The former inhabit some of the Aleutian Islands and the shores of Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean; the latter occupy the interior and southeastern portion of the Territory. A few Russians still remain, although many emigrated at the time of the purchase of the Territory. Where the natives have come in contact with foreigners there are many half breeds. Since the beginning of American rule the white population has increased. The eleventh census (1890) gives the population as follows:

It is estimated that since 1890 the white population has been increased about 1,000 by immigrants, most of whom are miners that have settled at Juneau and other mining camps or gone to gold fields on the Yukon. The principal centers of the white population are: Juneau, 671; Sitka, 280; Wrangle, 71; Kadiak, 127; Unalaska, 66.

Government.-Alaska was without civil government from the time of its purchase to May 17, 1884, when it was made a "civil and judicial district" and the general laws of Oregon were extended to it. Although frequently designated as a Territory, it is not so legally. In the act referred to above it is expressly stated that "there shall be no legislative assembly in said district, nor shall any delegates be sent to Congress"; but in the same act it is referred to as the "Territory of Alaska."

liquor to Indians, and several offenders in this direction have been prosecuted.

Education.-Schools for both white and native children have been established by the Russian Government, the United States Government, and various churches. In 1894 there were 14 day schools and 1 industrial home at (Metlakahtla) supported by the General Government, and 20 schools deriving their support wholly or in part from other sources. Of the latter class. 5 are sustained by the Russian Government; 1 by the Holy Synod of Russia; 1 by the Board of Missions, Protestant Episcopal Church; 4 by the Presbyterian Board of Home Missions, assisted by appropriations from the General Government; 1 by the Sisters of St. Ann; 1 by the Catholic Church; 2 by the North American Commercial Company on the islands of St. Paul and St. George; 1 by the American Branch, Swedish Mission Friends; 1 by the Swedish Evangelical Union; and 2 by the Russian Church. In these schools 57 teachers were employed, and the attendance was about 1,800.

In

Fisheries.-Codfish, halibut, herring, and eulachen or candlefish (a very oily species of smelt) are plentiful in the ocean waters of the south coast, while several species of salmon and trout abound in the river at certain seasons. 1890 the catch of codfish aggregated 506,000 fish, producing 760 tons of dried fish, valued at $38,000. The principal station for this industry is on the Shunagin Islands.

The catching and canning of salmon has become a well-organized and profitable industry. Beginning in 1878 with a catch of 14,854 cases (of about 100 pounds each), it has increased rapidly. In 1891 800,000 cases were shipped, having an estimated value of over $3,000,000. In addition 26,000 barrels of salted salmon were shipped, having an estimated value of $200,000. In 1890 there were 36 salmon canneries in operation on Kadiak island and eastward, and more than 4,000 men, exclusive of native fishermen, were employed. Another branch of the fishing industry is the manufacture of oil and fertilizer The Alaskan Oil and Guano Company, at Killosmoo, in 1894, produced 400,000 gallons of herring oil and 1,000 tons of "guano," besides 1,000 barrels of salted herring. They also make their own barrels from Alaskan timber, and pay annually about $20,000 in wages.

Furs.-Alaska is still one of the leading furproducing regions of the world. The character of the furs, their number, etc., from 1881 to 1890, is given thus:

CLASSIFICATION.

Sea otter..
Fur seal..

Land otter.

Coon fox.. Red fox Blue fox

Martin.

In addition the following fur-bearing animals are found in Alaska, and furnish large quantities of pelts, many of which are used in the Territory, but do not form an important article of export, viz., bear (polar, black, and brown), lynx,

wolf, muskrat, wolverene rabbits, marmots, and squirrels. Moose and caribou were formerly abundant, but are now becoming scarce. The total value of furs shipped from the time when the Territory came into the possession of the United States to 1890 was $48,518,929, and the total, under both Russian and American rule, was $83,371,150.

The Seal Islands.-The seals of Alaska form two groups-the hair seal and the fur seal. The former, of which there are several species, is found throughout the coast line, and is the more important of the two, as it furnishes the natives with large supplies of food, oil, and skins. Their covering is of hair, and, although this is beautiful, their pelts are not used in civilized countries for clothing. Their skins make excellent leather for bookbinding and similar purposes, but thus far have not been exported from Alaska.

The fur seals are now confined to the Pribylov Islands, in Bering Sea, where they resort for breeding. These islands consist of St. Paul and St. George, 33 and 27 square miles in area, respectively, and 2 outlying rocks known as Otter and Walrus islands, which are seldom visited by the fur seals. The seals return to St. Paul and St. George islands each year about May 1, their young are born soon afterward, and they leave again in October and November. During the winter they live at sea and journey as far south as the coast of California.

The best estimates of the seals that visited the seal islands annually between 1871 and 1889 place their number at 4,000,000. Within the past few years they have greatly diminished, owing largely to capture at sea by poachers. In 1891 57 vessels were engaged in this occupation, and by estimate 52,000 skins were taken. In the following year the catch at sea was much larger.

The seal islands are a Government reserve, and are leased with the privilege of taking a certain number of male seals over one year old annually. The lease of the islands was held by the Alaskan Commercial Company from 1870 to 1890, and since 1890 it has been in the hands of the North American Commercial Company. Each of these organizations has its office in San Francisco. Under the terms of the contract with the Alaskan Commercial Company the lessees were allowed to take 100,000 skins a year; under the current contract the number that may be taken annually has been reduced. The revenues derived by the United States from the leasing of the islands between 1870 and 1890 were between $7,000,000 and $8,000,000.

The marked decrease in the number of seals visiting seal islands, owing to their destruction while at sea, largely by Canadian sealers, led to a diplomatic controversy between the United States and Great Britain, which was finally settled by a tribunal of arbitration that sat in Paris in the summer of 1893. (See BERING SEA TRIBUNAL OF ARBITRATION in the "Annual Cyclopædia" for 1893, page 79.)

Whaling. The northern shores of Alaska are frequented by whales, and for several years have been the field of an important whaling industry. About 50 vessels are engaged in this occupation. The products of the catch in 1891 were 12,228 barrels of oil, 186,250 pounds of

whalebone, and 1,000 pounds of ivory; total, $1, 218,293. From 1874 to 1891 318,917 barrels of oil, 4,931,950 pounds of whalebone, and 272,410 pounds of ivory were obtained.

Mining. The mining laws of the General Government have been extended to Alaska, and 8 mining districts established. The minerals that have been found in sufficient abundance to be of economic value are gold, silver, copper, and coal; and gold and silver are the only ones now mined. The largest and most profitable mine in operation is the Treadwell, on Douglas island, nearly opposite Juneau. The lode there worked is practically inexhaustible, but is of low grade, the yield being $3 to $4 to a ton of ore. In the year ending May 1, 1894, 240,000 tons of ore were crushed, yielding $768,000, with a net profit of $440,000. This is the largest quartz mill in America, and has 240 stamps.

Other mines, both of gold and silver, are being developed in the same regions. Mining on the Yukon river is now confined to washing gold from river gravels. In 1890 more than 1,000 miners were engaged in this occupation. Ledges of gold-bearing quartz have been discovered on the Yukon, but as yet no attempt has been made to work them.

The product of the mines of Alaska for the years 1880 to 1890, inclusive, as estimated by the Director of the United States Mint, was: Gold, $4,604,500; silver, $27,340.

Large deposits of coal exist at several widely separated localities in the Territory: but up to the present time coal mining has not been commercially successful. Copper is also known to exist, both as native copper and in various combinations, but has not been successfully mined.

Agriculture. Nothing worthy of the name of agriculture has as yet been developed in Alaska. One of the chief reasons of this is, that the attention of the white population has been engrossed by other pursuits. The climate is exceedingly humid on the coast, and the mountainous character of the greater part of the land precludes extensive farming. Root crops-such as potatoes and turnips-as has been shown by many experiments, produce an abundant harvest, even as far north as the arctic circle. Much of the land is grass-covered and favorable to stock raising. This is true especially of Kadiak island and many of the islands westward, including the Aleutian chain. The summers in that region are too humid to admit of the curing of hay, but the preservation of fodder in a green condition is practicable, and, besides, the winter climate is so mild that cattle and sheep can graze almost throughout the year.

Reindeer. Owing to the efforts of Capt. M. A. Healy, of the United States Revenue Marine, and Rev. Sheldon Jackson, reindeer have been introduced, at the expense of the General Government, into western Alaska, and they are reported to be thriving. The scarcity of food among the natives of central and western Alaska, owing to the marked decrease of large game since the introduction of firearms, will be counteracted when the natives are taught to raise and care for heads of domestic reindeer.

Explorations and Surveys. - Portions of Alaska are still unexplored, and only small areas, chiefly on the coast, have been accurately sur