of the air. This strip of cloth was toughened by immersion in liquids till it was capable of resisting a good strong prick from a tack. This armor was put inside the tube before it was inflated and might stay for some time in position. The main difficulty was, that it could not be held in position at the bottom or top of the pneumatic tire, and sometimes a rider found, after days of uselessly carrying the extra weight, that his inside armor would slip and afford no protection when the outer tire was punctured. When ingenuity had exhausted itself in finding methods for toughening and strengthening, and at the same time keeping light, the pneumatic tires on which so much of the success of the modern bicycle depended, a step was at last taken in the right direction. The master stroke was a casting aside of all efforts to make the rubber withstand the cuts and blows to which its use subjected it and boldly taking an entirely different tack. As soon as the inventors stopped trying to get resistance out of a thing that could not be made a resistant body, and set to work trying to make the rubber tires not resistant but capable of being mended speedily, success smiled upon their efforts. There were three efforts also in this direction before the thing could be regarded as settled. A last attempt at the quick mending of breaks in bicycle tires by electricity has not yet been sufficiently tried to be fairly judged. The first attempt to mend the punctured tires was in supplying to riders a tiny pair of pinchers, with a small awl that could be

The plug was to be put in big end first, and the stem coming back through the hole could be trimmed off to fit. The difficulty with this arrangement was the amount of mechanical skill required. The improvement on this first rude attempt at the speedy mending of an injured bicycle tire was a neat and ingenious little contrivance something like a corkscrew. This had an oblique opening at one end, and its chief claim as an improvement was that it had the awl in the hollow of the handle. With the awl thus secured, and certain of working properly, the rubber plug was driven home to its position much more quickly and certainly than the former appliance did the work. One of the latest repairing tools effects

FIG. 5

FIG.4

heated red hot, a little book of rubber plugs (something like a fly fisher's book of flies), and some powerful liquid glue or cement. With a small hand pump for refilling a burst tire, a rider might now go on a long trip and feel reasonably certain that, even if he did have the mishap to prick his tire in some out-of-the-way place, the chances were that the injury could speedily be repaired, at least sufficiently for him to proceed on his journey and get home that night. With the set of tools spoken of, the mode of procedure was as follows: When the tire was punctured the rider dismounted and examined the injury. If it was a simple puncture, with a smooth inner surface, he need not trouble to heat the awl, but could proceed at once to patch the wound with his rubber plug. This rubber plug looked like a tiny toadstool. It was inserted with the pinchers or pliers after being carefully folded and covered with glue. The theory of this plug is that the pressure of the air from the blown-up pneumatic will hold it in place once it is secured in the puncture, with the head inside.

a reparation almost with the turn of the wrist. It is a little instrument about six inches long and has, like the others, the object of inserting and securing a tiny rubber plug where a hole in the tire has been made. The tool shown in the accompanying illustration is the instrument with the repairing plugs. Fig. 1 shows the tool as carried in the tool bag or in the pocket. Figs. 2 and 3 show the tool separated. Fig. 2 shows the divided plunger in which the stem of the plug is inserted. Fig. 4 shows the tool locked together, with the rubber plug inside the pointed expander, which is inserted in the puncture. Fig. 5 shows the plunger forced through the puncture inside the pointed expander, with the plug, carried through and inside the tire. Fig. 6 shows the tool withdrawn, leaving the plug in the puncture with the head of the plug inside of the tire and covering the puncture. Fig. 7 shows the stem of the plug cut even with the surface of the tire, making the repair complete. It is always well in repairing punctures not to use any larger plugs than are absolutely necessary,

the object of this being not to increase the size of the puncture. The very latest in bicycle repairs is a device just placed upon the market by a Western company. It is a contrivance for repairing tears or punctures in any kind of tire. The hole to be repaired is filled with new material, and the part then subjected to the vulcanizing effect of heat generated by electricity, under the influence of which the new and the old materials are united. This machine is small, the combined heater and regulator only occupying a space 3 feet long by 74 inches wide. The heater plates are 2 by 12 inches each, so that from 1 to 8 tires can be repaired at the same time. This latest device may be connected with any incandescentlight circuit. The machine was originally got up to enable a jobber in tires to make repairs in his shop on tires returned under his guarantee, and was found to do work in the most satisfactory manner. It is claimed that by this latest process uncured or partially vulcanized rubber and the necessary fabric and friction duck are placed in and around the hole to be patched, and it is then to be filled in with materials prepared for the purpose, which, when vulcanized on the machine, make a smooth, even job, exactly the same as could be done in the factory where the tire was originally made.

One of the causes of the fast time credited to bicycle experts in the recent efforts is due to the excellence of the tracks. The best style of track is considered the elliptical. The knowledge of the elliptical track was borrowed from the trotting-horse circuits, as was the idea of thrown-up turns. This was only a fair return, for the trotting-horse people borrowed the pneumatic tire from the bicyclists, and by doing so reduced the records of trotting horses at once, and wonderfully. The result of years of careful study and experimenting in the construction of bicycle tracks can be seen at Manhattan Beach, where Austin Corbin spent $60,000 to produce a perfect track for bicycle racing and for the daily practice of the constantly increasing patrons of this popular sport. The Manhattan Beach track is one third of a mile round, which is the most favored by bicyclists because, while a third of a mile is enough for a good swing, it is not too large, and does not let the racers get too far from their audience. Then, too, the turns can be thrown up better or oftener. And this is quite an advantage, for the bicyclist really comes to depend on the enormously thrown-up. turns more than he himself believes. A thrownup turn of 6 feet or more on the outer edge is a great help to a speeding bicyclist. The power developed is not only a rest for the few seconds spent on each of the turns, but the throw-in really helps to send the wheel along. The track at Manhattan Beach is composed of 8 inches of ashes and concrete, and 4 inches of crushed granite, powdered cement, and sand. The outer bank of this track is thrown up 6 feet inches. At first view, this great incline would make a rider hesitate but if he hesitates, he is lost. The power of remaining on his bicycle depends on his keeping on at a high rate of speed. This track has a grand stand capable of seating 8,000 persons, and there are also 3,100 folding chairs. The art of sitting on a bicycle is not so difficult as most people suppose. One can learn to

ride passably in a very few lessons. In the large cities it will be found best perhaps to go to a school where for a fee of 50 cents an hour, or 5 lessons for $2, one can learn well enough to go out alone. In case of learning out of doors, with a friend instead of a professional instructor for a teacher, a smooth level piece of road should be chosen. The friend should steady the machine, for at first even a Safety seems the giddiest thing imaginable and at least a mile high. The friend steadies the machine by the handle bar while the learner mounts, and as soon as he is seated the friend should place one hand under the saddle while retaining his grasp of the handle bar. In this position he can completely control the machine, and render a fall the next thing to an impossibility. If a violent or unexpected swing or lurch comes, simply let go of one pedal, and, putting out one foot, save yourself by keeping in an upright position by means of the ground. One of the most important things in learning to ride a bicycle is not to grasp the handles too firmly. Frequent rests should be taken, and not more than from 15 minutes to a half an hour consumed at any one of the earlier lessons. A bicycle is maintained in its upright position through its momentum, and the tendency of all rotating bodies to continue as started unless interfered with. It is a mistake to depend too much on the steering crank or handles to keep up. After one has acquired a perfect balance, the bicycle will keep up of itself, aided now and then by an almost imperceptible motion of the steering handles, which will turn the front wheel in the direction you would fall, thus re-establishing the equilibrium. The natural impulse of a learner is to turn the wheel away from the direction in which he is inclining. This is a case in which the natural instinct is at fault, and learning to ride a bicycle is simply learning to overcome this first impulse, and by practice developing a new and different one. To learn to ride by one's self, the pedals should be removed and the saddle placed so low that the learner's feet can be placed flat on the ground. Then grasp the handles, bestride the machine, and get it into motion by pushing on the ground 2 or 3 times with each foot; lift the feet from the ground, and try to steer the machine so that it will continue erect until it loses its momentum. Repeat this for some time, with occasional rests. When you find that you can actually steer well enough to keep the machine erect for a few yards, you can make the work easier by getting a good start, and then putting your feet on the pedals and coasting. It will not require much practice to give you confidence, which is all that is necessary to begin with the pedals. The saddle should still be kept low, so that in case of a slip or a fall the foot may be near enough to the ground to prevent an accident. A woman may learn to ride in a school or on the road as quickly as a man. Capable assistance is especially desirable for women, as many have not much strength, and require considerable help until the exercise has brought their muscles into play and accustomed them to the little exertion required. The first ride out on the road should be, if possible, under the eye of an experienced rider, and must be taken very slowly. Half a

mile is far enough to go the first time. The distance and speed of the daily ride may be gradually increased, and within a fortnight a healthy woman ought to ride 5 or 6 miles without fatigue, and a man at least twice as much. Men who had long given up all idea of active participation in athletics have taken to riding the bicycle, with the best effect, and ladies have found in the use of the wheel a tonic exercise of the greatest value. The principal charm of the wheel is the fact that one can, in a fraction of the time it would take to walk or even to be driven to a place, go there independently and in a fashion that has all the pleasure of the most delightful transportation imaginable, while at the same time obtaining the benefits of a most healthful exercise. Once a bicyclist always a bicyclist has become a proverb. The more people ride a machine, the more enthusiastic they become and the more they want to ride. One of the most popular forms of amusement at present is road racing on the bicycle. On account of the poor state of most roads in America, this pastime has not yet become what it is in England and in France, where the roads are nearly perfect. Two race courses with a national reputation are the Irvington-Milburn and the Pullman. On Memorial Day the best Western riders enter for the races at Pullman, and the Eastern ones try their speed and endurance at the Orange course in New Jersey. The Irvington-Milburn course is a 5-mile stretch between two villages of these names at Orange, N. J. The road here is smooth but hilly, and often a third of the starters fail to finish the race. The Pullman course is a 14-mile stretch between Chicago and Pullman. Some idea of the place that bicycling has taken in New York life may be gained from the fact that a bill was recently in troduced for the turning of the old aqueduct path into a bicycle track. This bill was passed by both Houses, and only failed to become a law through Gov. Morton's failure to attach his signature.

The League of American Wheelmen was founded in 1880, and now numbers 38,000 members. The president of the L. A. W., as it is always called, is A. E. Williston, of Maryland, and its vice-president is George Perkins, of Boston; but the controlling influence is said to be Isaac B. Potter, of New York, who would be the president of the body but for an amicable suit at law. The objects of the league are, in general, twofold: First, to encourage and aid bicycling by obtaining passage of laws favorable to the sport, by protecting the rights of bicyclists, and seeking to secure better roads all over the country; and, second, to protect the better class of riders from the damage that might be done the sport by unscrupulous professionals. To accomplish this latter purpose, riders are divided into three classes, Class A, Class B, and Class P. The riders in Class A are pure amateurs who have never taught, pursued, or assisted at bicycling or athletics for a livelihood, and only ride for their own amusement. Class B is composed of what are called half-and-half men-for instance, of what are called maker's riders, that is, of young men who, while not actually making their living as bicyclists, go from one country to another partly for the sake of the traveling, and ride a bicycle of a certain make with which they

break records and give exibitions or compete in amateur competitions, thus furnishing a regular and constantly moving advertisement for the house that pays their expenses and provides them with wheels. Class P is made up of professional bicyclists. The L. A. W. is divided into State divisions, each self-governing.

Great as is the bicycle in America and popular as it is in England, it finds its true home in Paris. That city, with its smooth wooden pavements, is better adapted to bicycling, and 10 Parisiennes ride where one Englishwoman would. In Paris, too, one finds the more practical adaptation of the bicycle principle. Here one sees on all sides the tiny bicycle boys with messages and letters, and the little tricycles with which even the bread is delivered in the morn

ing. The newspaper conditions in Paris are so different from what they are in England and the United States that in the French capital more than one big daily utilizes the tricycle for the delivery to the kiosks and to customers every morning. In England few ladies ride in London, but the bicycle is as popular at the country places as ever. It has become unfashionable to ride bicycles in London, because the cheapening of the wheel has enabled laborers to use it, and the business man who a few years ago went to his office on a bicycle will no longer be seen astride one except on a country road.

BOLIVIA, a republic in South America. The Constitution of 1880 vests the executive power in a President elected directly by the people for four years, and the legislative power in a Senate and House of Representatives, of 16 and 64 members respectively. Every male citizen able to read and write has a vote.

Moriano Baptista was elected President for the term ending in August, 1896. The ministers in the beginning of 1895 were: Foreign Affairs, E. Cano; Finance, E. Borda; Interior, L. Paz; Justice, E. Tovar; War, S. Alonso.

Area and Population.-The estimated area of the republic is 567,360 square miles. The population is estimated at 2,019,549, not including the tribal Indians. La Paz, the capital city, has about 56,000 inhabitants.

Finances.-The revenue for 1892-'93 was estimated at 5,737,200 bolivianos (the boliviano has an exchange value of 42 cents), and expenditure at 5,937,200 bolivianos. For 1893-'94 expenditure was estimated at 5,234,820, and expenditure at 5,721,300 bolivianos. The foreign debt includes a war debt of 1,616,655 bolivianos due Chili. This is being paid off; but on the rest of the debt, amounting to 3,763,273 bolivianos, no payments of interest or principal have been made for a long time. There is an internal debt of 4,484,916 bolivianos.

Other

Commerce and Production.-About two thirds of the exports consist of silver. commercial products are tin, cinchona, bismuth, India rubber, and alpaca wool. The value of imports officially given for 1892 was 11,071,000 bolivianos; exports, 21,570,000 bolivianos.

Communications. The railroad from the Chilian port of Antofagasta has since May 1, 1892, been completed from Ascotan, on the frontier, to Oruro, with a branch to the silver mines of Huanchaca, the total length on Bolivian territory being 500 miles.

The post office during 1892 forwarded 1,238,840 aternal and 368,539 international letters, newsapers, etc. Receipts, 384,821 francs; expenses, 17,527 francs.

The telegraph lines have a length of 903 miles. Quarrel with Peru.-Toward the close of 1894 the Government protested vigorously against Peru's action in stopping traffic on Lake Titicaca, which had been done for some time, contrary to the terms of the treaty between the two countries. After the election of Nicola Pierola as President of Peru, the dispute was settled, and there was no more interference with Bolivian vessels. Bolivia demanded that Peru should salute the Bolivian flag. This amende the Peruvian Government refused to give. Bolivia had been for some time increasing her armed forces, and supplying them with breechloading rifles and artillery, especially mountain guns. On July 9 Bolivia's minister to Peru presented an ultimatum demanding that Peru give satisfaction by a formal salute to the Bolivian flag within twenty-four hours; otherwise the Bolivian minister would quit Lima. The act of a Bolivian mob in stoning the Peruvian consulate in La Paz caused the Government to moderate its attitude. A protocol was drawn up for the settlement of the dispute by arbitration, as suggested by the papal nuncio. The offer was accepted by Peru, and the agreement was signed on Sept. 7, 1895. Brazil was selected to act as arbitrator, or Colombia in case Brazil should decline the office.

The relations between the two republics were strained on account of a question that had arisen in relation to the destination of some of the territory that Chili had retained after the conclusion of her war with Peru and Bolivia. The former Bolivian province of Atacama and the Peruvian province of Tarapaca were definitely annexed. The northern districts of Arica and Tacna, according to the terms of the treaty that was signed in October, 1883, were to be occupied by Chili for ten years, at the end of which the inhabitants should decide by a plébiscite to which of the two republics they would belong. The Chilian Government did not hold a plébiscite when the ten years expired. It was not until Peru seemed likely to have a stronger and more stable government, after Pierola's accession to power, that Chilian statesmen became alive to the necessity of reaching a final settlement of the status of Tacna and Arica. Chili could not in honor and safety retain them against the will of the inhabitants, who did not seem disposed to elect the Chilian nationality; but she was unwilling to restore them to Peru, and thus aggrandize her old enemy and rival, and make it easier for the Peruvians to regain the rest of the conquered territory. A third solution of the problem was to give the districts to Bolivia, which was already an economic dependency of Chili. By this means Bolivia could be seduced from her old alliance with Peru against Chili, and would become Chili's ally, greatly strengthening the position of that power in a possible war with Peru and the Argentine Republic or with Peru alone. The people of Arica and Tacna would first have to be reconciled to the transfer and induced to accept Bolivian nationality. To bribe them Chilian cap

A

italists promised to extend the railroad from Arica to Tacna into the interior, so that it would become an outlet channel for the bulk of the exportable produce of Bolivia. treaty was drawn up by the Chilian Government whereby Chili was to cede at once to Bolivia a seaport in the northern part of Tarapaca. Chili further agreed to promote the acquisition of Tacna and Arica by Bolivia, on condition that Bolivia pay $5,000,000 to Chili. This money was to be paid finally to Peru as compensation. Since the Bolivian Government had no such sum at its disposal, Chili offered to advance it, requiring as a guarantee that the control of the customhouses in the seaports that Bolivia would acquire should be intrusted to Chilian officers, and the customs applied to the repayment of the debt until it shall be extinguished.

The people of Bolivia were not won immediately by this alluring proposition, and the majority of the Cabinet were opposed to its acceptance. President Baptista nevertheless declared that he would accept and support the treaty, and would submit it to the Congress for ratification. BRAZIL, a federal republic in South Amer

ica. The legislative power is vested in the National Congress, consisting of the Senate and the House of Deputies. There are 3 senators from each State and from the Federal District, 63 in all. The Deputies, elected in the States according to their population, number 205. All tax bills originate in the lower house. Members of both houses are paid. They can not be Cabinet officers unless they resign their seats, and none can accept any office bearing emoluments, except in the diplomatic or military services, in which case he must resign his seat, nor can he become interested in any public contracts or be a director in a private corporation having contracts with the Government. Congress meets annually on May 3 and sits four months. The President, who is elected for four years, has power to prorogue it or to call an extra session, and has a suspensive veto upon legislation.

The President is Prudente de Moraes Barros, who entered upon his office on Nov. 15, 1894. He appointed the following Cabinet: Finance, Rodriguez Alves; Public Works, Antonio Olyntho; Interior and Justice, Gonçalves Ferreira; War, Gen. Bernardo Vasques; Marine, Admiral E. Barbosa; Foreign Affairs, Carlos Carvalho. The Vice-President of the Republic is Dr. Manoel Victorino Pereira.

Area and Population.-Brazil has an estimated area of 3,209,878 square miles, and an estimated population of 14,354,217 souls. Rio de Janeiro, the capital, had 422,756 inhabitants in 1890. Pernambuco has about 190,000, and Bahia 200,000. The immigration in 1893 was 84,143; emigration, 17,525. The German and Italian colonies in Rio Grande do Sul and elsewhere have been formed of emigrants brought out at the expense of the Government, who are fed and housed until land is allotted to them, when they receive a small sum of money and tools to enable them to build a habitation and begin work. Beginning almost without capital, they cultivate in a primitive manner and make slow progress. The Italians are said to be the more energetic and economical, and to get more out of rugged,

hilly land than the Germans out of rich bottom lands; but the latter settle down and become permanent citizens, while the Italians are inclined to go back to their own country when they have saved some money.

Finances. The receipts of the General Government in 1893 were 258,835,000, and expenditures 317,467,000 milreis. In 1894 the revenue was 201,568,000, and expenditure 253,473,000 milreis. The estimate of expenditure was 250,457,908 milreis, of which 14,473,833 milreis were for the Ministry of the Interior and of Justice, 100,716,824 milreis for the Ministry of Agriculture, 85,645,244 milreis for the Ministry of Finance, 29,959,815 milreis for the Ministry of War, 17,846,200 milreis for the Ministry of Marine, and 1,815,992 milreis for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The extraordinary expenditures were estimated at 116,384,000 milreis. For 1895, receipts are estimated at 270,198,000 milreis, and expenditures at 275,692,000 milreis.

The total debt in 1893 amounted to 1,481,136,784 milreis, less 233,612,484 milreis of assets, leaving a net debt of 1,247,524,300 milreis. The foreign debt was 261,809,111 milreis and the internal debt 649,042,399 milreis, besides which there were 215,111,964 milreis of treasury bonds and 355,173,310 of guaranteed bank notes.

Commerce and Production.-After coffee, of which 8,000,000 bags were produced in 1892, the chief products are rubber, cotton, tobacco, cattle, sugar, and fruits. There were 450,000 cattle slaughtered in 1893, and 575,160 salted hides, 2,592,864 kilogrammes of tallow, and 24,474,077 kilogrammes of jerked beef were exported. The exports of coffee and India rubber go largely to the United States. The value of the exports to North American ports in 1892 was $118,633,604, while only $14,291,873 worth was imported from North America. Most of the imports come from Great Britain, Germany, and France. The imports of cotton cloth from Great Britain amounted in 1892 to about $17,000,000, the iron imports to $3,000,000, machinery imports to $3,700,000, woolen imports to $2,000,000, and imports of coal to $2,250,000.

Navigation.-There were entered in 1893, at Rio de Janeiro, 1,397 vessels, of 2,062,294 tons, and cleared 1,218, of 1,924,449 tons; at Bahia, in 1892, were entered and cleared 965 vessels, of 1,297,712 tons; at Rio Grande do Sul were entered 471 vessels, of 200,798 tons, and cleared 485, of 202,776 tons. From November, 1894, foreign vessels are inhibited from the coasting trade. The registered vessels of over 100 tons burden in 1894 were 164 steamers, of 110,068 tons, and 126 sailing vessels, of 35,908 tons.

Communications.-There were 6,651 miles of railroads in operation, 3,815 miles were building, and 13,411 miles more were projected in 1893. Of the existing lines the Government owned 1,586 miles and subsidized 1,815 miles, and the bonds paying 6 and 7 per cent. of many of the others were guaranteed.

There were 9.179 miles of telegraphs in 1892, with 14,326 miles of wire, all belonging to the Government. The number of dispatches sent in 1892 was 1,143,360.

The post office in 1890 forwarded 18,246,739 private letters, 19,280,135 journals and circulars, and 1,281,700 registered letters and packets; re

ceipts were 3,243,421 milreis, and expenses 9,323,108 milreis.

The Army and Navy.-Personal service for three years in the army and three years in the reserve is obligatory, except for various exempt classes. The standing army consists of 40 battalions of infantry, 16 regiments of cavalry, 5 regiments of field artillery, 9 battalions of foot artillery, and 2 battalions of pioneers, besides special corps. The peace effective in 1894 was 1,600 officers and 30,000 men. The gendarmerie numbers 20,000.

The naval force consists of 2 battle ships, the "Riachuelo" and "24 de Maio," 3 large cruisers, 9 coast-defense ironclads, 23 small cruisers and gunboats, and 7 first-class and 5 second-class torpedo boats. Two powerful new battle ships are building in France.

The Revolt in Rio Grande.-In the beginning of 1895 the rebels in Rio Grande do Sul took the field under the command of Admiral Saldanha da Gama. The Brazilian troops in pursuing one of the bands crossed the frontier and came into collision with Uruguayan troops, who opposed their advance, killing 1 officer and 3 soldiers. On March 1 the rebels defeated a column of 500 troops near the frontier. The Government charged Uruguay with openly aiding the insurgents, and the Senate debated a resolution to declare war against Uruguay as the only means of ending the revolt. Later the Government forces were successful, and most of the rebels retired into Uruguay. In June, Admiral da Gama, at the head of 400 sailors, was engaged by a brigade of 1,200 Government troops near Santa Aña. He repelled five charges of cavalry, but at last, when 300 were killed or wounded on both sides and most of his men had abandoned the field, he ordered the handful who stood by him to retreat, and then cut his own throat. On July 2 Gen. Galvao, commanding the Government troops, arranged a week's armistice with Col. Tavares, chief of the rebel forces. The men on both sides were tired of resultless bloodshed, and could not be led into battle. The rebels were willing to come to terms if Gov. Castilho would retire, but the Cabinet could not agree upon sacrificing him. Negotiations were reopened. The proffer of Uruguay and the Argentine Republic to mediate was indignantly rejected. Gen. Saraiva collected a new force of several thousand rebels on the border of Uruguay, ready to resume the conflict. At last terms of peace were agreed to in August, to which Gov. Castilho, who had before stood out for unconditional surrender, gave his assent. A free pardon was granted to all who laid down their arms, with a guarantee of all civil rights to every person implicated in the revolution, including the right to appeal to the courts for the redress of injuries committed by the troops. Dr. Castilho was to remain as Provisional Governor until the meeting of the State Congress, which should alter the Constitution so as to make it conformable with the constitutions of the other States. The amnesty bill was passed in September after a sharp debate in both houses, with modifications debarring rebel officers from the army and navy for two years, and extending the amnesty to other political offenders and

exiles.