CHAPTER VII THE BRIEF -Some kind of an outline is indis PURPOSE. Some pensable to the presentation of the argument in full. In the first place, an outline is necessary for getting an orderly arrangement of the proof. Ideas are not ordinarily to be presented in the same order in which they were obtained. There must be such a rearrangement and classification of the material that the whole course of the discussion is covered in orderly progression from the starting-point to the end desired; and an outline may be said to furnish a map of the territory to be traversed. Secondly, such orderly classification is necessary in order to impress the plan of the whole argument upon one's mind. No ordinary person can carry in his memory a complete outline of an argument without first reducing it to writing. Further, when the time comes for presenting the proof in final form, whether it be first written out or whether spoken directly from the outline, the author's mind should be left free for the elaboration of his argument, step by step, the framework having been completed in advance. Especially is this the case in extemporaneous debating; for any one can learn to speak extempore if he knows in advance the order and substance of what he wishes to say. Finally, an outline is necessary in order to make the argument clear to others. Especially in debate, the foundation and framework in the structure of the speaker's argument must be made clear to the hearers. They must in some way be made to see the structure by means of an occasional “first,” "secondly," and "thirdly," or other means of identification; and the speaker cannot well make the structure apparent to his audience unless he has previously made an outline for himself. Different Kinds of Outlines.-There are all sorts of outlines, from the exceedingly meager and fragmentary form, consisting in mere head-lines or catchwords, to an elaborate statement covering all material points. The first type may be illustrated by the following brief prepared by Lincoln for his argument in a case to recover for the widow of a Revolutionary soldier two hundred dollars which had been retained by the defendant out of four hundred dollars awarded the widow as pension money: No contract-Not professional services-Unreasonable charge-Money retained by Def't not given to Pl'ff-Revolutionary War-Describe Valley Forge privations-Pl'ff's husband-Soldier leaving home for army-Skin Def't-Close.1 This outline served Lincoln's purpose, no doubt, but it would be almost useless to any one except 1 Lewis, Specimens of the Forms of Discourse, p. 233. the writer, and it is altogether too meager for a comprehensive and closely related argument. The type of the other extreme-the full outline-is found in the ordinary legal brief. A brief, in law, "is a document, prepared by counsel as a basis for oral argument of a cause in an appellate court, containing a statement of the manner in which the questions in controversy upon the appeal arise; of the facts of the case so far as they relate to these questions; a specification on the part of the plaintiff in error or appellant of the errors alleged to have been committed by the court below, upon which reversal is asked for; and a brief of the argument, consisting of the propositions of law or fact to be maintained, the reasons upon which they are based, and citation of authorities in their support." A brief in debate has all the essential features comprehended in this definition, but it need not contain quite so full and detailed statements as a brief in law since a debate-brief always presupposes a subsequent expansion, either written or oral, while a legal brief often takes the place, by agreement of counsel, of any oral argument. On the other hand, an outline consisting of mere head-lines is insufficient. With a view of criticism by the teacher, the student's brief, it should be remembered, is to inform a reader, as well as the writer, of the author's analysis of the question and of all the proof upon which he relies. It is a composition in itself, containing all that 1 Abbott, Brief-making and the Use of Law-Books, p. 5. part of the complete argument which is essential for a successful appeal to the intellect, and lacks only complete rhetorical form and the element of persuasion. A brief in debate, then, is a condensed written argument, covering every essential step in the proof, and so arranged that the leading and the supporting arguments are clearly indicated. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD BRIEF The main features of a good brief are (1) Clearness, (2) Coherence, and (3) Unity. 1. Clearness. However desirable perfect clearness may be in other forms of composition, in argumentation it is absolutely indispensable. Remembering always that the brief is the outlineplan for the subsequent complete argument, it is essential that it be so constructed that the readerand hence later the hearer may readily follow you. And yet the average beginner in briefwriting constantly disregards, in actual practice, this fundamental principle. The first requisite of clearness is, of course, clear thought on the part of the writer. If your own thoughts are muddy, you can hardly expect them to be clear in the brief. You must have an unobstructed view of the whole course of the argument, from the beginning to the end of the proof. But more than this, particular care must be exercised in the phrasing in order to make the brief clear to a reader and to the average hearer. We say to the average hearer, because after a student has made special study of a question, many points that are very apparent to his own mind might not appear so clear to one who has made no special study of the subject. In the phrasing of your proof, then, avoid complex statements and aim for simplicity, directness, and conciseness. 2. Coherence. Not only must an argument be clear, as to the whole and as to all its parts, but the whole must hang together and the parts adhere to the whole and to one another: the argument must be coherent. The two principal elements of coherence are subordination and sequence. We have seen that any question for debate will resolve itself into certain issues that need chiefly to be proved in order to prove the proposition; and that other subordinate issues, with all the evidence in the case, merely go to support these main issues. Coherency requires that these main issues be emphasized in the argument, and that related issues be subordinated-that is, that in the welding together the cohering of the whole argument the evidentiary and supporting material be grouped about the main issues. By sequence, as an element of coherency, is meant that all steps in the proof naturally and logically lead to and follow one another. This applies to the main divisions of the whole argument and to the proof that supports each main division. In the development of the proof care should be exercised to avoid arbitrary and abrupt changes; the transitions from one part of the |