antagonist evinces a want of candor which the auditory seldom fail to perceive, and which engages their feelings in his favor. When involved in controversy, then, never start against yourself frivolous objections for the sake of showing how easily you can answer them.... There can be no possible advantage in supposing our antagonist a fool. The most probable effect of such an imagination is to prove ourselves so.

2. Observation of student debating, as well as of public discussions generally, teaches the necessity for the cultivation by the debater of an attitude of respect toward an opponent and his argument. Remember that a person opposing you in argument is not an enemy, but an opponent; not a falsifier of truth, but one who is in error and whom you are to set right. He is not to be vanquished, but made to see the truth. Furthermore, have consideration for the ideas of another: "Every man with a new thought may be a Columbus in disguise." In any case, he is entitled to a respectful hearing.

It is said of Pericles that when interrupted in a speech "he gave way and never answered sharply, nor used his position to the other's discomfiture. In his speeches there was no challenge, no vituperation, no irony, no arraignment. He assumed that everybody was honest, everybody just, and that all men were doing what they thought was best for themselves and others. His enemies were not rogues-simply good men who were temporarily in error."1 Non-recognition of this principle is shown whenever a student uses such expressions as, "He gets up here and foolishly asserts so and so," "He harps about this point," "We now have him crowded to the wall-he is completely cornered." Avoid any attempt to be a "smart" debater, using any of the stock jokes usually associated with the country-school debate; as, "The gentleman speaks as though he really believes what he says," or "He is like a bird flying along a rail fence you can't tell any one moment which side he is on," etc. But it may be perfectly plain to the audience "which side he is on," in which case such remarks are worse than useless. Other exhibitions of a lack of due respect and of a proper attitude toward those on the other side are shown when a speaker dramatically challenges his opponents by addressing them alone, accompanied, it may be, with a quasi - withering look or gesture; or flaunts an authority in their faces; or otherwise conducts himself in a hysterical fashion, when there is no especial cause for excitement and when the refutation would be far more effective if presented in a respectful and dignified manner.

Courtesy, aside from being a fundamental quality of the gentleman, in debate helps to win an audience far more than students often realize. Ridicule and irony are seldom helpful. Irony that springs from personal spleen and malignant contempt for those against whom it is directed is neither justifiable nor effective. There are times, to be sure, when irony may be as a "terrible and fiery finger, shriveling falsehood from the souls of men," but it is a dangerous weapon, and should be used only in extreme cases. It may happen, of course, that one needs to answer a fool according to his folly. Sometimes a case may be, as the lawyers say, "laughed out of court." But when it becomes necessary to make fun of an opponent's argument, do so good-naturedly. As a general rule beware of the ad hominem argument. Anyhow, the use of personalities is petty, in poor taste, and is trying to an audience even of the most ordinary intelligence; people generally are growing less and less tolerant of slander and personal abuse. And above all, in the stress of a hotly contested debate, a participant should watch his temper. It has become a truism that whenever in an argument a man gets angry, he is as good as beaten. "Arguments cannot be answered with insults; anger blows out the lamp of the mind. In the examination of a great and important question, be serene, slow-pulsed, and calm." If not "calm," at least self-controlled. In fine, the guiding principle in debate should be the subordination of partisanship and personalities to a search for truth.

In all these ways, then-by appeals to emotions related to the argument and adapted to the audience, by the use of the rhetorical qualities of concreteness, direct discourse, and emphasis, and by the manner of delivery-persuasion may be made to supplement and reinforce conviction.

Manner of Delivery. The most important thing in delivery is to know what you are going to say. There is no substitute for this. However, the best prepared speech may be marred by a poor delivery. The manner of speaking is so obvious that it never escapes the attention of the audience. A poor argument now and then may elude detection, but "bad form" in delivery, never; it is, therefore, of more importance than many debaters suppose.

It is impracticable to go into details concerning platform delivery. The student who desires to become an effective debater should, as early as possible, receive sound and sensible training in the fundamentals of expression-namely, enunciation, pitch, inflection, emphasis, volume, loudness, vocal quality, etc. Assuming that this preliminary training has not been neglected, a few suggestions on delivery of special interest to debaters may be helpful.

Stand erect with weight usually on the forward foot. Do not walk to and fro parallel with the platform. Move about, easily and noiselessly, on your feet, but seldom leave your place at the center of the platform. Gesturing with the hands for emphasis and description is desirable, but must be graceful and used sparingly; debating is an intellectual process, not emotional. Never gesture with your hand across the middle line of your body. Always face your audience squarely; move the entire body, not only your head, when you desire to speak to your opponents on the platform, or to different sections of the audience. The index finger, rather than the open hand, marks the intellectual man.

Speak clearly and distinctly, and loud enough to be heard in all parts of the room. The key should be normal, but marked with changes in pitch and inflection. The quality should be pure, firm, resonant, and pleasing. Enunciation must be distinct. Do not say, "La's an' gen'l'm'."

The general style of delivery should be strong and earnest-conversational. Make your speaking direct, strong talk. Do not speak as though you were delivering an oration or a sermon. Avoid all slang and other eccentricities in speech and gesture. Be absolutely positive that you pronounce every word correctly. Your time is limited, therefore get in all the arguments you can in the time allotted. Speak as rapidly as you can, but never sacrifice distinctness and force for speed. What matters it how much you say if you are not understood? Always look your audience in the face; do not look out of the window, up at the ceiling, or at your feet. Speak as though it were a matter of life and death. Know your subject, then discuss it with all the force and earnestness of a live man who has a vital message for his hearers.

EXERCISES

1. For practice in adapting persuasion to a particular audience take some such proposition as: Our State Legislature should appropriate $ to this institution for [a designated purpose]. Write out an argument to be presented, say, to the legislative committee to whom this matter has been referred. Now suppose you were to present the same line of argument to a country audience during a political campaign; how would you revise your first speech?