And this shows in what sense it is that Christ abides with his Church for ever. It is by the Holy Spirit, who is called the Spirit of Christ, and who taketh of the things of Christ and showeth them to us; and who is the earnest or first fruits of the future glory. For it is written, "If Christ be in you, the body is dead because of sin; but the Spirit is life, because of righteousness. But if the Spirit of him that raised up Jesus from the dead dwell in you, he that raised up Christ from the dead shall also quicken your mortal bodies by his Spirit that dwelleth in you" (Rom. viii. 11).

It has been chiefly through the exaggeration and distortion of the proportions of faith, by giving greater prominency than belongs to it to one of the articles of one of the creeds, that the errors we complain of have been brought in it will be by giving equal prominency, or rather the just proportions, to all the articles of all the creeds, that the balance will be restored and the truth vindicated. And the one main object of all the creeds is to declare in what manner the distinct attributes of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost harmoniously combine in the plan of salvation revealed in the Gospel, that so the Church may know what to pray for and pray with intelligence as well as faith; and, above all, that we may be guarded against every species of idolatry, to which all mankind are naturally prone; and may never give to any creature, much less to a lifeless thing, any portion of the honour due to God alone.

ART. II.-Historical Sketch of Logic, from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. By ROBERT BLAKEY, Professor of Logic, Queen's College, Belfast. London: Baillière.

THE history of logic, or of the art of reasoning, comprehends in fact a history of the progress of the human mind: for, as in this science the mind is at once both the instrument and the subject of inquiry, every advance in the progress of this science indicates an improvement, not only in our understanding of the subject, but also a correspondent improvement in the thing to be understood—namely, in the mind itself, which is the subject of our investigation. And this consideration suffices to explain the advantages of these studies or pursuits to the cultivated classes of mankind, who are looked up to as lights and guides of others, and the comparative neglect or indifference of the less cultivated classes to subjects which

they cannot be expected to understand; while it also accounts for the great variety of systems of logic which have been in vogue, not only at different times, but often in the same age: since the mental capabilities vary ad infinitum, and each age of the world has its own peculiar or distinguishing characteristics and its own intellectual requirements, and each individual has his own turn of thought and mental bias differencing him from other men:

"If mankind could be brought to think unanimously on all the fundamental principles of theology, morals, and politics, there would be then some chance likewise for logical unanimity; but, as this is not likely to happen, there must always be great differences of opinion on the principles which should constitute a science of argumentation....... Logic must then, I conceive, be doomed to present for ever a variable aspect to be a system not united or bound together by a series of scientific axioms, susceptible of independent and demonstrative proof, and backed by a rigid and unvarying consequentiality; but rather as constituting a code of rules and judgments, gathered from individual observation in every walk of science, and from every position in which the human mind is placed-partaking, moreover, largely of a prudential and precautionary character. And this has been, in fact, the true form logic has been compelled to assume, particularly within the last three centuries, purely from the necessity of accommodating itself to the progressive and extended range of philosophic thought, and to the constant desire manifested that all knowledge should be tested by its susceptibility of promoting the moral, religious, and intellectual improvement of individuals and societies "(xxx).

Yet we should err if we regarded these variations as accidental imperfections, or as a round of ever-varying phases of alternate brightness and obscurity without any real advance or increase. They are the necessary consequences of the finite and, therefore, diversified capacities of individuals, but are not incompatible with a continual enlargement of the sphere of knowledge; but, on the contrary, rather promote it by the many various aspects in which every subject is presented; so that the human species, regarded as one whole, may be said to be in a state of uninterrupted mental progression. For, although certain branches of inquiry may seem to be neglected, it is because other branches have been taken up, which, though they may appear independent, ultimately conduce to the enlargement of the common stock. And although, in the history of some countries, we may find races of mankind degenerating who had once been foremost in the career of improvement, yet other races have taken up the ball where these began to fail, and have carried on the mental progress and work of civilization in other lands, and thus advanced the

culture of mankind looked at as one whole-that is, the intellectual development of the species.

The wonder rather is that so much progress is made, since each individual comes into the world a novice, with everything to learn. He has to begin at the beginning, and has of course the longer way to fetch up in proportion as the age he lives in has more advanced. But then he has also the benefit of the experience and wisdom of his predecessors, and 30 enters upon his more arduous career with advantages which they did not possess in the same degree. And thus, while his labours are facilitated, his pleasures are also enhanced: he reaps a harvest which others have sowed; and, though the toil of the reaping may be somewhat increased, he is abundantly rewarded in the fuller sheaves which he will have to lay up in the intellectual garner.

Nor let it be supposed that anything which is worth knowing can be acquired without labour and toil. An effort is required even to be able to comprehend what others have discovered and would teach us. The mind, like the body, must be trained by vigorous exercise to the full and pleasurable employment of all its various functions. It needs both culture and practice to understand, appreciate, and use those weighty truths which the master-minds of former ages have left upon record for our instruction without being crushed by them; and those who have written most ably on logic have been especially alive to this necessity for preparation in the minds of their readers, as appears in the many instances of appending to their formal didactic treatises some notes of advice on the conduct of the understanding; which is professedly addressed to young men, but indicates also that any one who would expect profit from such studies must be, in like manner, trained. "Watts on the Improvement of the Mind," intended as a supplement to his "Logic," is an example in point:

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"It embodies a vast amount of just and useful observations on the government of the mind and in connexion with education generally. Dr. Johnson, in his 'Life of Watts,' observes, that 'few books have been perused by me with greater pleasure than his Improvement of the Mind,' of which the radical principles may, indeed, be found in Locke's Conduct of the Understanding;' but they are so expanded and ramified by Watts as to confer on him the merit of a work in the highest degree useful and pleasing. Whoever has the care of instructing others may be charged with deficiency in his duty if this book is not recommended '" (346).

And of Locke's treatise Mr. Blakey writes as follows:

"We cannot close these remarks on Locke's logical views without a passing word on his little tract' On the Conduct of the Understanding. This has occasionally been incorporated as a distinct chapter in his Essay,' for which it was originally intended by its author. It is a valuable fragment. Its general scope is to impress upon the youthful mind, in its pursuit of knowledge, the moral and religious obligation attending every exercise of the judgment and understanding; and that every display of the logical art should be guided and influenced by a conscientious love of truth. Its utility as an instrument of early philosophical education is highly spoken of by Mr. Hallam, whose learning, judgment, and candour, give at all times great weight to his opinions. He says- Aristotle himself and the whole of his dialectical school had pointed out many of the sophisms against which we should guard our reasoning faculties; but these are chiefly such as others attempt to put upon us in dispute. There are more dangerous fallacies by which we cheat ourselves-prejudice, partiality, self-interest, vanity, inattention, and indifference to truth. Locke, who was as exempt from these as almost any man who had turned his mind to so many subjects where their influence is to be suspected, has dwelt on the moral discipline of the intellect in this treatise better, as I conceive, than any of his predecessors.' Again-I cannot think any parent or instructor justified in neglecting to put this little treatise in the hands of a boy about the time when the reasoning faculties become developed. It will give him a sober and serious, not flippant or self-conceited, independency of thinking; and while it teaches how to distrust ourselves, and to watch those prejudices which necessarily grow up from one cause or another, will inspire a reasonable confidence in what he has well considered, by taking off a little of that deference to authority, which is the more to be regretted in its excess, that, like its cousin. german, party-spirit, it is frequently united to loyalty of heart and the generous enthusiasm of youth'" (281).

The history of logic, rightly studied, becomes one of the most important investigations in which the mind of man can be engaged. It is the history of himself in the highest and truest sense-the history of man in that respect in which he is distinguished from the animal creation and from all that is mortal and perishable, for the mind never dies; and it treats of the successive steps towards the perfecting of that instrument by which the processes of reasoning are conducted and his god-like attributes are developed for it not only brings him acquainted with the right use of the noblest endowment which God has bestowed on man, and the faculty in which his own individuality and personality chiefly reside, but also teaches him what an exalted place he holds in the universe, and brings him into connexion with the Sovereign Universal Mind; and thus, raising him above all other created beings, places him, as the image of God, next to the great Governor of all. And as the history of logic will show that

reason unaided by revelation-as among the sages of Greece -will lead to the discovery that there is and must be an Universal Mind, which is the centre and source of all goodness and truth, so that which reason, groping after, dimly discerned, has been by revelation set in clear and open light; and, by investing it with the authority of an established truth, has thereby incalculably advanced the progress of reasoning as well as fixed it on a firm unalterable basis; and the history of logic thus divides itself naturally into the two epochs-of that before the promulgation of Christianity or natural logic; and that subsequent to the Incarnation or Christian logic:

"Whatever opinions some philosophers may entertain as to the authenticity or value of the Bible, the facts of its influence over the reasoning faculties of mankind cannot be doubted. They stand out in prominent relief in every page of history since the Christian era " (92).

"The inspired volume is the great book of human nature, where all its intellectual principles and moral springs of action are displayed with surprising accuracy and distinctness. The entire man, body and spirit, is here pourtrayed in every conceivable position and under the influence of every conceivable motive. As the science or art of logic has the great field of the inner man for its exclusive display, and as its maxims or rules call into requisition nearly the whole train of intellectual faculties, and it exercises moreover a reflex effect upon his moral affections and sensibilities, we can perceive at once that such an inspired record, from its very fulness, completeness, and universality, must be an important instrument for guiding the reason of mankind, and pointing out those paths they ought to take amid the perplexing labyrinths that surround them" (91).

Logic, as a science, owes its birth to Greece, and it was called into existence there by the competition for power among the leading men, which could only be obtained through gaining an ascendancy over the multitude by persuasion, and was retained only so long as this ascendancy was maintained. Argumentative talents, both in writing and speaking, thus came to be in high request; and the power of persuasion, while it opened the way to the post of honour, was called into continual exercise for warding off the assaults of rivals and defending friends, as well as for the higher and worthier duty of promoting the public interests of the commonwealth. All aspirants to power naturally cultivated the arts of persuasion; but, as such, they were in the attitude of an opposition to the man in power, and their arguments would generally take the form of objections and cavils rather than of legitimate reasoning, which has for its object the discovery and maintenance of truth; and the public functionary himself, who was thus