CHRISTIAN VII.-continued. Sept. 23, 1768-dismisses count Bernstorf and makes Struensee minister, 1770 -fall and execution of Struensee and Brandt-Bernstorf recalled, 1772-Holstein obtained in exchange for Oldenburg and Delmenhorst, 1773-stops all intercourse between his subjects and the British North American colonies, 1775falls into mental imbecility; his son, the crown prince, regent, 1784. See FREDERIC VI., k. of Denmark.-d. Mar. 12, 1808. CHRISTIAN VIII., Frederic, k. of Denmark, son of Frederic, second son of Frederic V., b. Sept. 18, 1786-invited by the Norwegians to resist their union with Sweden, and proclaimed king, May 17, 1814 withdraws, Aug. 14 succeeds his cousin, Frederic VI., on the throne of Denmark, Dec. 3, 1839 incorporates Holstein and Schleswig with his kingdom-the states of the two duchies claim the preservation of their rights as portions of the Germanic body, 1846-d. Jan. 20, 1848. CHRISTIAN I., duke of Brunswick. See BRUNSWICK. CHRISTIAN LOUIS, duke of Brunswick. See BRUNSWICK. CHRISTIAN I. and II., electors of Saxony. See SAXONY. CHRISTIANITY first taught to the Greeks in Antioch, 36-Saul (Paul) and Barnabas sent forth by the church there, first preach it to the Gentiles of Cyprus, Perga, and Iconium, 38-preached in Britain, 178-in Abyssinia, by Frumentius, 329 to the Goths, by Ulphilas, 376embraced by Clovis, 496-preached to the Saxons of Kent, by Augustin, 596embraced by Sabert, k. of Essex, 604by Edwin, k. of Northumberland, and Eorpwald, of East Anglia, 627--preached to the West Saxons, by Birinus, 634to the Bavarians, by Emmeran, 651-in the Isle of Wight, 661-in Germany, 690 -by Boniface, 715-supplanted in Africa by Mohammedanism, 749-forced on the Saxons by Charlemagne, 785preached in the North, 826. See ANSGAR.-In Russia, 864-declared by Chief Justice Raymond to be part of the law of England, Nov. 28, 1729. See CHRIS TIANS. CHRISTIANS, a Greek name, adopted by the believers in Christ at Antioch, 37accused of having set fire to Rome, and suffer cruel punishments from Nero; first persecution, 64-severely punished by Domitian, for refusing to pay a tax towards rebuilding the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus; second persecution, 95 -compelled, by order of Trajan, to offer sacrifices; those who refuse suffer martyrdom; third persecution, 107-fourth persecution, imputed to the emperor Hadrian, 118-persecuted by Barchochebas, 134. See BARCHOCHEBAS.-Persecution of them forbidden by an imperial edict of Antoninus Pius, 151-renewed, by permission of M. Aurelius, 164 - in Gaul, 177- Marcia, the favourite of Commodus, protects them, 185-fifth persecution, under Sept. Severus, 202all persecution ceases in the time of Alexander Severus, 223-sixth persecution, by Maximin, 235 - security enjoyed under Philip, 248-seventh persecution, by Decius; several bishops martyred, 250 the wealth and "influence of the hierarchy introduce many corruptions, and fierce contentions for the episcopal office; passive submission of the laity, 251-stricter canons are enforced by Cyprian, through the council of Carthage, and the hierarchy made more despotic, 252-eighth persecution, under Valerian and Gallienus, 254-ninth persecution, under Aurelian, 270-the Christians unmolested during the first years of Diocletian, 284-302-Galerius urges him to repress the growing power of the hierarchy, for which he orders the tenth persecution; the fiercest and most systematic which they have endured, Feb. 23, 303 the persecution checked by Constantine in the West, but continued in the East, 307-Galerius issues an edict to stop it, Apr. 30, 311-edict of Constantine and Licinius in favour of the Christians, 313-of Constantine, to protect converts from Judaism, Oct. 18, 315 -to punish all who exact from Christians the observance of heathen ceremonies, May 25, 323-he obtains for them, in Persia, relief from the persecution caused by the Magi, 333-dissensions and persecutions of each other. See DoNATISTS, ARIANS, ATHANASIUS, MELETIUS, DAMASUS, CHRYSOSTOM, THEOPHILUS, CYRIL, DIOSCUROS, NESTORIUS, PELAGIUS, JEROME, RUFINUS, VIGILANTIUS.-Persecution in Persia, 420-Nestorianism prevails there and in the East, 499-Christians massacred by the Jews of Antioch, 610 edict of the emperor Leo III. against the worship of images, 726. See ICONOCLASTS.-Christians tolerated by the Mohammedans in Spain, 758-for their wars, see SPAIN. -- Punished by Abderahman II. if they speak against Mohammed, 850-dispersion of the Paulicians, 871. See PAULICIANS.-A Greek patriarch received in Russia, 876-urged by pope Gregory VII. to recover the Holy Land, 1074. See CRUSADES.--Ad N mitted to office in Turkey by a firman of | the sultan, Jan. 8, 1849-placed on an equality with the Mohammedans in Turkey by the sultan, Jan. 26, 1856. "CHRISTIANISMI RESTITUTIO." See SERVETUS.-Dr. Mead's new edition, ordered to be burnt by Gibson, bp. of London, May 29, 1723. CHRISTIE, Sir Archibald, b. 1774-d. 1847. CHRISTIE, Mr., kills Mr. Scott, editor of the London Magazine, in a duel, 1821. CHRISTINA, qu. of Spain. See MARIA CHRISTINA. CHRISTINA, qu. of Sweden, daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, b. Dec. 8, 1626succeeds her father, with Oxenstiern as regent, 1633-her father's policy continued; treaty of Heilbron with France; her general, Horn, defeated at Nordlingen, Sept. 6, 1634-Banner, by his victory at Wittstock, retrieves the Protestant cause in Germany, 1636-is driven back into Pomerania, 1638-Torstenson takes the command, 1641-defeats the Austrians at Breitenfeld, and takes Olmütz, 1642-conquers Holstein, 1643-defeats Gallas, and occupies Bohemia, 1644gains the battle of Janowitz; resigns the command to Wrangel, 1645- the elector of Bavaria compelled to be neutral, 1646-peace of Westphalia; Sweden gains a part of Pomerania, Wismar, Bremen, and Verden, 1648-her cousin, Charles Gustavus, recognized as her successor; she invites Des Cartes to Stockholm, 1654-resigus the crown, June 16, 1654-Oxenstiern retires, and d.-she embraces the Romish faith, and is received with great solemnity at Rome, Dec. 19, 1655-during a visit to Paris, she causes Monaldeschi, one of her suite, to be assassinated, 1657-d. at Rome, Apr. 19, 1689. CHRISTINA, Second daughter of Henry IV., k. of France, b. 1606-married to Victor Amadeus of Savoy, 1620-on the death of her husband, her title to the regency disputed, 1637-under the protection of her brother, Louis XIII., she becomes regent for her son, 1642. See CHARLES EMANUEL II., duke of Savoy.-Christina d., Dec. 27, 1663. CHRISTODORUS, of Coptos, poet, fl. 511. CHRISTOPHE, assists in driving the French out of Haiti, 1803-joins Petion in assassinating Dessalines, and divides Haiti with him, 1806-is proclaimed as Henry I., k. of Haiti, 1811-kills himself, 1820. CHRISTOPHER I., k. of Denmark, succeeds his brother, Abel, 1252-Erlandson, abp. of Lund, raises rebellion against him; he is expelled, and d. in exile, 1259. CHRISTOPHER II., k. of Denmark, succeeds his brother, Erik VI., by capitulation with the nobles, 1320-expelled, 1329recovers the throne, 1330-d. 1333. CHRISTOPHER III., k. of Denmark, elected in the place of his uncle, Erik VII., 1439 -also in Sweden, 1440-fails in an attack on Lubeck, 1447-d. 1448. CHRISTOPHER, k. of Sweden. See CHRISTOPHER III., k. of Denmark. CHRISTOPHER, the Pacific, duke of Wirtemberg, 1550-1568. CHRISTOPHER, chaplain of pope Leo V., imprisons him, and makes himself pope, 903-is deposed by Sergius III., 904. CHRISTOPHER, son of the emperor Romanus I., proclaimed Augustus by his father, 919-d. 931. CHRISTOPHOROS, a Byzantine general, sent by the emperor Basil I. against the Paulicians, defeats and slays Chrysocheir, 871. CHRONICA of Dexippus, written, 269. CHRONICLE of Eusebius, ended, 325-of Idatius, begins, 379-of Jerome, terminates, 378 of Marcellinus, begins, 379— of Prosper of Aquitaine, concluded, 455 --of Victor Tununensis, begins, 445. CHRONICLES of St. Denis, presented to Philip III. of France, 1274-of Russia, written by Nestor, 1077-of England. See ANGLO-SAXON, CAXTON, WYNKYN DE WORDE, LANGTOFT, HIGDEN, HOLINSHED, FABYAN, GRAFTON, STOWE, SPEED. CHRONICON, of Cassiodorus, ends, 519Paschale, ends, 628. CHRYSANTHUS, bp. of the Novatians, 407— d. 419. CHRYSIPPUS, the Stoic, b. B. c. 280-d. 207. CHRYSOBERGES, Lucas, patriarch of Constantinople, 1155. CHRYSOCHEIR, son of Carbeas, leader of the Paulicians, overruns Asia Minor, and pillages Nicomedia, Ancyra, and Ephesus, 868-falls in battle, 871. CHRYSOLORAS, Emanuel, sent by Mannel II., emperor of the East, to implore assistance from the Christians of the West; after having completed his mission, he is engaged to teach Greek at Florence, 1396 d. 1414. CHRYSOMACHUS, Olympic victor, B.C. 596. CHRYSOPOLIS, battle of; Licinius finally overcome by Constantine, Sept. 28, 323. CHRYSORRHOAS. See JOHN OF DAMASCUS. CHRYSOSTOM, Joannes, b. at Antioch, 354taught by Libanius, 369-ordained deacon at Antioch, 381-presbyter, 386appeases, by his preaching, tumults of the people of Antioch, 387-invited by Eutropius, and appointed bp. of Constantinople, 398-condemns in a discourse the games of the circus and the theatre, 399-inveighs against the vices of court and church, 400-Theophilus, bp. of Alexandria, intrigues against him, 401-the empress Eudocia favours his enemies; he is banished by the arts of Theophilus, and recalled through fear of a popular tumult, 403-again banished by a synod, finally leaves C.P., June 20, 404 reaches Cucusus, the place of his exile, in Sept.; removed to Arabissus, where he is exposed to the inroads of the Isaurians, 406. See ARABISSUS.-Ordered by his persecutors to be removed to Pityus; d. on the journey, near Comana, Sept. 14, 407-his remains removed from Comana, and honourably deposited in Constantinople, 438. CHRYSOSTOM, Dio. See Dro PRUSEUS. CHUFU, K. of Egypt, B.C. 3425 L. See CHEOPS, 1482. CHUNAR, treaty of, between the E. I. Company and the nabob of Oude, Sept. 19, 1781. CHUNDA SAIB, nabob of Arcot, slain, 1752. CHUNNUS. See BULGARIANS. CHURCH. See CHRISTIANS; EAST, church of the; WEST, church of the; ENGLAND, church of; FRANCE, church of. CHURCH-BENEFICES in Germany, the sale of, forbidden by pope Gregory VII., 1073. "CHURCH IN DANGER," the cry raised by the Tories and Jacobites; the Lords and Commons address qu. Anne, assuring her that no such danger exists, 1705. CHURCH DISPUTES. See PUSEYISM. CHURCH-LANDS, which had been alienated by Henry VIII., secured to their holders by parliament, 1554-pope Julius III. demands the restitution of them; qu. Mary gives up all that are still held by the crown, 1555. CHURCH-PROPERTY, protected by a law of Theodosius II., Dec. 15, 434-the Commons of England petition Henry IV. to use it for the benefit of the State, 1404again, 1410-taken for the service of the State in France, Nov. 2, 1789. CHURCH-RATES, plan for the abolition of, prepared by lord Althorpe; adopted by the House of Commons, Apr. 22, 1834-but afterwards abandoned; refused at Manchester, Sept. 3; at Birmingham, Dec. 13; Bill brought in again, Mar. 3, 1837 -opposed by the bishops, Mar. 9, and abandoned by the ministers; Sir William Clay's Bill for their abolition introduced, Mar. 25, 1855-read a second time, May 16. CHURCH-SERVICES ordered to be read in Latin throughout all Christendom by pope Vitalianus, 663-by qu. Elizabeth, to be read in English throughout her dominions, 1558. CHURCH, Gen., appointed commander of the Greek army, 1827. CHURCHES of Paris shut up, Dec. 1, 1793, but soon re-opened. CHURCHILL, John, afterwards duke of Marlborough, b. 1650- learns the art of war under Turenne, 1674 - deserts James II., Nov. 22, 1688. See MARLBOROUGH, earl and duke of. CHURSCHID, grand vizir, takes Janina, and puts Ali Pacha to death, 1822. CHUSAN, taken by Sir Gordon Bremer, July 5, 1840-evacuated, Feb. 24, 1841-re-occupied by Sir Henry Pottinger, Oct. 13. CIBALIS, in Pannonia, battle of; Licinius defeated by Constantine, Oct. 8, 314. CIBBER, Colley, b. 1671-poet laureate, 1730 d. 1757. CIBO, Francheschetto, married to Maddalena, daughter of Lorenzo de' Medici, 1487. CICERO, M. Tullius, b. at Arpinum, B.C. Jan. 3, 106-a cadet in the army of Cn. Pompeius Strabo, 89-pleads for Quinctius, 81-for Sextus Roscius, 80-goes to Athens, 79-resides at Rhodes, 78returns to Rome, 77-quæstor in Sicily, 75 -returns, 74-orations against Qu. Cæcilius and Verres, 70-made ædile, 69prætor; advocates the Manilian law, for giving the command to Pompey, 66elected consul for the next year, 64serves the office; detects Catiline's conspiracy, and delivers his oration pro Muræna, 63-pro P. Sylla, 62-excites the hostility of Clodius, 61-sends to his friend, Atticus, a history of his own consulship in Greek, 60-banished by his enemy the tribune, Clodius, 58-recalled by his friend the tribune, Milo, 57-accuses Piso and Gabinius of oppression in Macedon and Syria, 56-replies to Piso, and composes his three books, De Oratore," 55-writes "De Republica," and defends Vatinius, Scaurus, and Placidius, 54-defends Milo, 52-proceeds to Cilicia as proconsul, 51-returns to Rome, 50-joins Pompey in Greece, 49-reconciled to Cæsar, 47-orations for Ligarius and Marcellus; composes his "Brutus," 46-divorces Terentia; marries Publilia, whom he also divorces; his daughter, Tullia, d.; he writes "De luctu minuendo," "Orator," "De Finibus," "Academica," 45-withdraws from Rome soon after the death of Cæsar, and in his retirement writes "De Divinatione," "De Fato," "De Gloria," "De Officiis," "De Senectute," "Topica," and "Tusculana Disputationes;" return to Rome after Antony's departure, Aug. 31; first Phi CICERO-continued. lippic, against M. Antony, Sept. 2; second written, but never spoken; third and fourth delivered in the senate, Dec. 20, 44-his continued Philippics delivered between Jan. 1 and Apr. 22; irritate Antony, and he is murdered, Dec. 7, 43| -his Life written by his freedman and pupil, M. Tullius Tiro, 5; his book, De Senectute, printed by Caxton, A.D. 1481. CICERO, M. Tullius, the son, educated at Athens by Cratippus, B.C. 44-consul suffectus, 30. CICERO, Qu. Tullius, brother of the orator, gov. of Asia, B.C. 61-serves in Gaul under Cæsar; is defeated by the Eburones, 54. CICOGNA, Pasquale, doge of Venice, 1585-95. CICURINUS, C. Veturius, consul of Rome, B.C. 455. CID, the heroic name of Roderigo Diaz del Bivar; b. 1025-distinguishes himself in Spain against the Moors, 1065restores victory to the arms of Sancho II., king of Castile, 1071-rallies the Christian forces, defeats the Moors at Alcoraza, and takes Huesca, 1087-takes Valencia, 1094-after defending it five years, d. there, and is buried at Burgos, 1099. "CID, the," a Spanish poem published, 1150. See CORNEILLE. CILICIA, given to Demetrius Poliorcetes by Seleucus Nicator, B.C. 299-becomes an independent piratical State, 125-attacked by P. Servilius Vatia, 77-conquered by Pompey, and made a Roman province, 67-after the defeat of Crassus, ravaged by the Parthians and Armenians, 53-Cicero proconsul, 51-a part given by Antony to Polemo, with the title of king, 29-confirmed to Polemo, the son, by Caligula, A.D. 38-and the whole given to him by the emperor Claudius, 41misgoverned by Capito, 57-afflicted by pestilence and famine, 333-ravaged by the Isaurians, 404-taken by the Persians, 609-recovered by Heraclius, 622conquered by the Saracens, 832-John Zimisces expels them, 964-occupied by Armenians, expelled from their country by Alp Arslan, and called the Reubenian, or Lesser Armenia, 1065- their princes assassinated by Nicephorus III., 1080-occupied by the Crusaders; quarrel of Tancred and Baldwin, 1097. See CRUSADERS-Subdued by the emperor John II., 1137-governed as a tributary State by Thoros, 1145-55-conquered by Amurath I., 1387. CILLY, count, a nobleman of Hungary, killed by the eldest son of John Huniades, 1457. CILO, L. Fab. Gab. Septiminus, consul of Rome, II., 204. CIMABUE, father of the modern school of painting in Florence, b. 1240-d. 1300. CIMBRI, or CUMRHI, a gathering of Celtic tribes, in concert with the Gothic Teutons, advance into Illyrium, and defeat the consul, Papirius Carbo, B.C. 113repulsed by Drusus in Thrace, 112-are refused an allotment of lands to settle on; defeat the consul, Junius Silanus, ravage the country, till they are checked in Thrace by Minucius Rufus, 109-are victorious over the consul Aurelius Scaurus, 108--force their way into Roman Gaul, where they defeat the consul C. Manlius, and the proconsul, Cæpio, 105-invade Spain, 104-driven out by the natives, 103-defeat the proconsul, Lutatius Catulus; force a passage into Italy, are totally crushed by Marius at Vercellæ, July 10; their league dissolved, the Cimbri are heard of no more, and supposed to be annihilated, 102. CIMMERIAN PENINSULA. See CHERSONESUS TAURICA, and CRIMEA. CIMMERIANS, the first known Cumrhi, or gathering of Celtic tribes, formed to resist the Massagetæ, by whom they are driven from the Araxes, enter Lydia, and take Sardis, B.C, 635-driven out of Lydia; their league dissolved, and they disappear, but settle in the lands afterwards called Galatia, 617. See GALATIA, and GALLO-GRÆCI. CIMON, Son of Miltiades, takes Scyros, B.C. CINCINNATUS, L. Quintius, consul of Rome, CINCINNATUS, T. Quintius Pennus, consul of Rome, B.C. 431-II. 428-military tribune, 426-II. 420. CINCIUS. See ALIMENTUS, L. Cincius, writes De Re Militari, B.C. 190. CINNA, L. Cornelius, consul of Rome, B.C. 127. CINNA, L. Cornelius, consul of Rome, deposed by the senate, calls Marius from Africa, raises a body of Italians, and reinstates himself in office, B.C. 87-consul II., 86-III., 85-IV. 84-raises an army to oppose Sylla, is assassinated by his soldiers, 84. CINNA, Cn. Corn. Magnus, consul of Rome, 5. "CINNA." See CORNEILLE CINNAMUS, John, writes his History of the for a conspiracy against Richelieu, 1642. CINQUE PORTS, fortified by Wm. I., 1067-| receive privileges from Hen. III., 1216 -the duke of Ormond lord warden, 1713 -Wm. Pitt, 1806-duke of Wellington, 1828-1852-marquis of Dalhousie, 1853. CINTRA. See ALFONSO V. and VI., kings of Portugal.-Convention of, concluded, between Sir Hew Dalrymple, and mar. Junot, Aug. 30, 1808-cauises popular dissatisfaction in England; court of inquiry at Chelsea, Nov. 17. CIRCASSIANS, defeat the Russian general, Godovin, and destroy all the new forts constructed against them, 1840. See SCHAMYL. "CIRCE," the planet, discovered by M. Chacornac, at Paris, Apr. 6, 1855. CIRCESIUM. See CARCHEMISH. CIRCUITS; Henry II. divides England into six, through which he sends justices in eyre twice a year to administer the laws in each county, 1177. CIRCULATING LIBRARY, the first established in London, 1740. CIRCUMCELLIONES. See DONATISTS. CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE GLOBE, first accomplished by the ships of Magelhaens, 1522-Drake, the first English circumnavigator, 1577-80. CIRCUS FLAMINIUS, built by C. Flaminius, B. C. 220. CIRCUS (now the Surrey Theatre) burnt, Aug. 12, 1805. CIRCUS FACTIONS. See CONSTANTINOPLE. CIRENCESTER, taken by Ceawlin, k. of Wessex, 577-battle of, followed by peace between Cynegils, k. of Wessex, and Penda, k. of Mercia, 628. See CA NUTE. CIRIGNUOLA, battle of; the French defeated by Gonsalvo de Cordova, and the duke de Nemours killed, Apr. 28, 1503. CIRRHEANS, engage in the sacred war with the Amphictyonic league, B.C. 595-lose Cirrha, 591-finally overcome, 587. CISALPINE REPUBLIC founded, May, 1797restored, June 4, 1800. See ITALIAN REPUBLIC, and ITALY, kingdom of. CISPADANE REPUBLIC, founded, Oct. 16, 1796. CISSA, k. of Sussex, 514-conquered by CITEAUX. See BERNARD. torian guards, pursue Commodus to Lanuvium, and kill Cleander, 189. CIUDAD REAL, submits to Sebastiani, Mar. 27, 1809. CIUDAD RODRIGO, held by the Portuguese against Henry II., k. of Castile, 1370taken by Ney, July 10, 1810-stormed by Wellington, Jan. 19, 1812. CIVIDALE, pope Gregory XII. holds his opposition council at, 1409. CIVIL LAW. See LAW. CIVIL LIST, arrears, provided for, Mar. 2, 1769-again paid by a vote of the Commons, Apr. 9, 1777-the Speaker (Sir Fletcher Norton) addresses the king thereon, May 7; Sir Henry Parnell's motion for inquiry into it, causes the resignation of the Wellington ministry, Nov. 15, 1830. CIVIL WARS in England and Great Britain: Between k. Stephen and Matilda, mother of Henry II., 1139-1153. Between k. John and the barons, 12141216. Between Henry III. and the barons, 1262 -1268. Between Edward II. and the barons, 1321-1327. Between Henry IV., the earl of Northumberland, and Owen Glendower, 1403-5. Between the houses of York and Lan ⚫ Between Charles I. and the Parliament, 1642-46. Between Charles II. and the Parliament, 1650-1651, Between James II. and the duke of Monmouth, 1685. Between James II. and William III., in Scotland and Ireland, 1689-90. Between George I. and the Pretender, 1715-16. Between George II. and the young Pretender, 1745-46. CIVILIS, leader of the Batavi, 70. See BA- CIVITA VECCHIA. See CENTUMCELLEBlockaded by commodore Troubridge, 1799-gen. Oudinot and the French expedition land at, May 25, 1849. CIVITELLA, battle of; pope Leo IX. defeated and made prisoner by Robert Guiscard, June 18, 1053. CLAIRAUT, one of the French Academicians who go into the north to examine the figure of the earth, 1736. CITY-COHORTS of Rome, overcome the præ- CLAIRFAIT, the Austrian general, defeated |