sects, they have arranged quadrupeds also with claw to each division; these are the camel kind. the same assiduity; and although the number of The elephant makes a kind by itself, as its claws these is so few as not to exceed two hundred,3 are covered over by a skin. The rest of the nuthey have darkened the subject with distinctions merous tribe of claw-footed animals, he divides and divisions, which only serve to puzzle and into two kinds; the analogous, or such as resemperplex. All method is only useful in giving ble each other; and the anomalous, which differ perspicuity, where the subject is either dark or from the rest. The analogous claw-footed animals copious but with regard to quadrupeds, the are of two kinds : they have more than two cutnumber is but few; many of them we are well ting teeth in each jaw, such as the lion and the acquainted with by habit; and the rest may very dog, which are carnivorous; or they have but readily be known without any method. In treat- two cutting teeth in each jaw; and these are ing of such, therefore, it would be useless to con- chiefly fed upon vegetables. The carnivorous found the reader with a multiplicity of divisions; kinds are divided into the great and the little. as quadrupeds are conspicuous enough to obtain The great carnivorous animals are divided into the second rank in nature, it becomes us to be such as have a short snout, as the cat and the acquainted with, at least, the names of them all. lion; and such as have it long and pointed, as However, as there are naturalists who have gain- | the dog and the wolf. The little claw-footed cared a name from the excellence of their methods, nivorous animals differ from the great, in having in classing these animals, some readers may de-a proportionably smaller head, and a slender sire to have a knowledge of what has been labo- body, that fits them for creeping into holes, in riously invented for their instruction. I will just pursuit of their prey, like worms; and they are take leave, therefore, to mention the most ap- therefore called the vermin kind. plauded methods of classing animals, as adopted by Ray, Klein, and Linnæus; for it often happens, that the terms which have been long used in a science, though frivolous, become, by prescription, a part of the science itself.

Ray, after Aristotle, divides all animals into two kinds; those which have blood, and those which are bloodless. In the last class, he places all the insect tribes. The former he divides into such as breathe through the lungs, and such as breathe through gills: these last comprehend the fishes. In those which breathe through the lungs, some have the heart composed of two ventricles, and some have it of one. Of the last are all animals of the cetaceous kind, all oviparous quadrupeds, and serpents. Of those that have two ventricles, some are oviparous, which are the birds; and some are viviparous, which are quadrupeds. The quadrupeds he divides into such as have a hoof, and such as are claw-footed. Those with the hoof, he divides into such as have it undivided, such as have it cloven, and such as have the hoof divided into more parts, as the rhinoceros and hippopotamus. Animals with the cloven hoof, he divides into such as chew the cud, as the cow and the sheep; and such as are not ruminant, as the hog. He divides those animals that chew the cud, into four kinds: the first have hollow horns, which they never shed, as the cow; the second is of a less species, and is of the sheep kind; the third is of the goat kind; and the last, which have solid horns, and shed them annually, are of the deer kind. Coming to the claw-footed animals, he finds some with large claws, resembling the fingers of the human hand; and these he makes the ape kind. Of the others, some have the foot divided in two, and have a

3 In Dr. Shaw's General Zoology, the number of quadrupeds, not including the cetaceous and seal tribes, amount to five hundred and twelve, besides

their varieties.-ED.

We see, from this sketch of division and subdivision, how a subject, extremely delightful and amusing in itself, may be darkened and rendered disgusting. But, notwithstanding, Ray seems to be one of the most simple distributors; and his method is still, and not without reason, adopted by many. Such as have been at the trouble to learn this method, will certainly find it useful: nor would we be thought, in the least, to take from its merits; all we contend for is, that the same information may be obtained by a pleasanter and an easier method.

It was the great success of Ray's method, that soon after produced such a variety of attempts in the same manner; but almost all less simple, and more obscure. Mr. Klein's method is briefly as follows; he makes the power of changing place, the characteristic mark of animals in general; and he takes their distinctions from their aptitude and fitness for such a change. Some change place by means of feet, or some similar contrivance; others have wings and feet: some can change place only in water, and have only fins: some go upon earth, without any feet at all: some change place, by moving their shell; and some move only at a certain time of the year. Of such, however, as do not move at all, he takes no notice. The quadrupeds that move chiefly by means of four feet upon land he divides into two orders. The first are the hoofed kind; and the second, the claw kind. Each of these orders is divided into four families. The first family of the hoofed kind, are the single hoofed, such as the horse, ass, &c. The second family are such as have the hoof cloven into two parts, such as the cow, &c. The third family have the hoof divided into three parts, and in this family is found only the rhinoceros. The fourth family have the hoof divided into five parts; and in this is only to be found the elephant. With respect to the clawed kind, the first family com

with two large cutting teeth in each jaw. This comprehends the Rabbit, the Hare, the Guineapig, all the various species of the Squirrel, the Dormouse, the Marmotte, the Rat, the Mouse, the Agouti, the Paca, the Aperea, and the Tapeti. The tenth class is that of the Hedge-hog kind, with claw-feet, and covered with prickles; comprchending the Hedge-hog and the Porcupine, the Couando and the Urson.

the wild animals, will have some incomplete | The ninth class is that of the Rabbit kind, knowledge of their figure from the tame ones. On the contrary, I will not, as some systematic writers have done," say that the bat is of the human kind, or a hog of the horse kind, merely because there is some resemblance in their teeth, or their paps. For although this resemblance may be striking enough, yet a person who has never seen a bat or a hog, will never form any just conception of either by being told of this minute similitude. In short, the method in classing quadrupeds should be taken from their most striking resemblances; and where these do not offer, we should not force the similitude, but leave the animal to be described as a solitary species. The number of quadrupeds is so few, that indeed, without any method whatever, there is no great danger of confusion.

The eleventh class is that of the Tortoise kind, covered with a shell, or scales. This comprehends the Tortoise, the Pangolin, and the Phataguin.

The twelfth is that of the Otter, or amphibious kind; comprehending the Otter, the Beaver, the Desman, the Morse, and the Seal.

The thirteenth class is that of the Ape and Monkey kinds, with hands, and feet resembling

All quadrupeds, the number of which, accord-hands. ing to Buffon, amounts to but two hundred, may be classed in the following manner.

First, those of the Horse kind. This class contains the Horse, the Ass, and the Zebra. Of these none have horns, and their hoof is of one solid piece.

The second class are those of the Cow kind; comprehending the Urus, the Buffalo, the Bison, and the Bonassus. These have cloven hoofs, and chew the cud.

The third class is that of the Sheep kind; with cloven hoofs, and chewing the cud like the former. In this is comprehended the Sheep, the Goat, the Lama, the Vigogne, the Gazelle, the Guinea Deer, and all of a similar form.

The fourth class is that of the Deer kind, with cloven hoofs, and with solid horns, that are shed every year. This class contains the Elk, the Rein-deer, the Stag, the Buck, the Roe-buck, and the Axis.

The fifth class comprehends all those of the Hog kind, the Peccari, and the Babyrouessa.

The sixth class is that numerous one of the Cat kind. This comprehends the Cat, the Lion, the Panther, the Leopard, the Jaguar, the Cougar, the Jaguarette, the Lynx, the Ounce, and the Catamountain. These are all carnivorous, and furnished with crooked claws, which they can sheathe and unsheathe at pleasure.

The seventh class is that of the Dog kind, carnivorous, and furnished with claws like the former, but which they cannot sheathe. This class comprehends the Dog, the Wolf, the Fox, the Jackal, the Isatis, the Hyæna, the Civet, the Gibet, and the Genet.

The eighth class is that of the Weasel kind, with a long small body, with five toes, or claws, on each foot; the first of them separated from the rest like a thumb. This comprehends the Weasel, the Martin, the Pole-cat, the Ferret, the Mangoust, the Vansire, the Ermine, with all the varieties of the American Moufettes.

5 Linnæi Syst.

The fourteenth class is that of winged quadrupeds, or the Bat kind; containing the Bat, the Flying Squirrel, and some other varieties.

The animals which seem to approach no other kind, either in nature or in form, but to make each a distinct species in itself, are the following: the Elephant, the Rhinoceros, the Hippopotamus, the Camelopard, the Camel, the Bear, the Badger, the Tapir, the Cabrai, the Coati, the Ant-bear, the Tatou, and, lastly, the Sloth.

All other quadrupeds, whose names are not set down, will be found among some of the abovementioned classes, and referred to that which they most resemble. When, therefore, we are at a loss to know the name of any particular animal, by examining which of the known kinds it most resembles, either in shape, or in hoofs, or claws, and then examining the particular description, we shall be able to discover not only its name, but its history. I have already said, that all methods of this kind are merely arbitrary, and that Nature makes no exact distinction between her productions. It is hard, for instance, to tell whether we ought to refer the civet to the dog or the cat kind; but, if we know the exact history of the civet, it is no great matter to which kind we shall judge it to bear the greatest resemblance. It is enough, that a distribution of this kind excites in us some rude outlines of the make, or some marked similitudes in the nature of these animals; but to know them with any precision, no system, or even description, will serve, since the animal itself, or a good print of it, must be seen, and its history be read at length, before it can be said to be known. To pretend to say that we have an idea of a quadruped, because we can tell the number or the make of its teeth, or its paps, is as absurd as if we should pretend to distinguish men by the buttons on their clothes. Indeed it often happens that the

6 Goldsmith little dreamt, when penning such a sentence as this, of what might be achieved by such a knowledge of comparative anatomy as Cuvier's immortal work is founded on.-Ed.

quadruped itself can be but seldom seen; that | many of the more rare kinds do not come into Europe above once in an age, and some of them have never been able to bear the removal; in such a case, therefore, there is no other substitute but a good print of the animal, to give an idea of its figure; for no description whatsoever can answer this purpose so well. Mr. Locke, with his usual good sense, has observed, that a drawing of the animal, taken from the life, is one of the best methods of advancing natural history; and yet most of our modern systematic writers are content rather with describing. Descriptions, no doubt, will go some way towards giving an idea of the figure of an animal; but they are certainly much the longest way about, and, as they are usually managed, much the most obscure. In a drawing we can, at a single glance, gather more instruction than by a day's painful investigation of methodical systems, where we are told the proportions with great exactness, and yet remain ignorant of the totality. In fact, this method of describing all things is a fault that has infected many of our books, that treat on the meaner arts, for this last age. They attempt to teach by words, what is only to be learnt by practice and inspection. Most of our dictionaries, and bodies of arts and sciences, are guilty of this error. Suppose, for instance, it be requisite to mention the manner of making shoes, it is plain that all the verbal instructions in the world will never give an adequate idea of this humble art, or teach a man to become a shoemaker. A day or two in a shoemaker's shop will answer the end better than a whole folio of instruction, which only serves to oppress the learner with the weight of its pretended importance. We have lately seen a laborious work carried on at Paris, with this only intent, of teaching all the trades by description: however, the design at first blush seems to be ill considered; and it is probable that very few advantages will be derived from so laborious an undertaking. With regard to the descriptions in natural history, these, without all question, under the direction of good sense, are necessary; but still they should be kept within proper bounds; and, where a thing may be much more easily shown than described, the exhibition should ever precede the account.

NOTE. Of the Linnæan and Cuvierian systems. Gen

eral view of the class Mammalia.

dom. These kingdoms he redivided into classes, orders, genera, species, and varieties.

of genera an order; and several orders a class. A plurality of species constitute a genus; a variety When, therefore, an object with which we are totally unacquainted presents itself, our first business is to consider what is the class to which it belongs. Having ascertained this, we next compare it with the characters of the orders; and having determined to which it is allied, we proceed to investigate its generic characters. When we have satisfied ourselves as to this, we come to the last and most difficult point, namely the discovery of its species, which often rests on very trivial distinctions.

The Systema Natura' of Linnæus laid the foundation on which almost all succeeding systems have been built. He arranged the ANIMAL KINGDOM into six classes as follow:

CLASS I.-MAMMALIA.
ORDER 1. Primates

2. Bruta
3. Feræ

4. Glires
5. Pecora

6. Belluæ
7. Cete

CLASS II.-AVES.
ORDER 1. Accipitres
2. Pica
3. Anseres

4. Grallæ

5. Gallinæ

6. Passeres

CLASS III.-AMPHIBIA.
ORDER 1. Reptilia

2. Serpentes
3. Nantes

CLASS IV.-PISCES.
ORDER 1. Apodes

2. Jugulares

3. Thoracci
4. Abdominales

CLASS V.-INSECTA.
ORDER 1. Coleoptera
2. Hemiptera
3. Lepidoptera

4. Neuroptera

5. Hymenoptera
6. Dyptera
7. Aptera

CLASS VI. VERMES.
ORDER 1. Intestina

2. Mollusca

3. Testacea
4. Lythophyta
5. Zoophyta

To this system may be attributed, in a great measure, the rapid progress which Natural History has made since the time of Linnæus. The first outline appeared in 1748, and was perfected in the 12th edition of the Systema Naturæ,' published in 1766. This system was improved by Blumenbach, in his 'Manual of Comparative Anatomy,' first published in 1803.

Systems are conventional arrangements, to enable naturalists to classify species, so that their identity may be traced, compared, and investigated. As new species were discovered, the task of ascertaining them became so difficult and uncertain that the necessity of systems was apparent. Accordingly, systematic arrangement was practised to a limited extent before the time of Linnæus: but to him we are The modern discoveries, however, by Cuvier, Geofindebted for the production of a new and comprehen- froy, Lamarck, and other French comparative anatomsive classification. He reduced all natural objects ists, have pointed out the necessity of substituting into three great divisions, which he called kingdoms; other arrangements. Among all the various sysviz. the Animal, the Vegetable, and the Mineral king-tems which have been devised, that of Cuvier seems

R

to approach nearest to the natural affinities, especially in his class Mammalia, which is that we have adopted, with the addition of some new genera, possessing decided characters.

Cuvier separates all known animals into four great divisions, namely, I. VERTEBRATED ANIMALS; II. MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS; III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS; and, IV. RADIATED ANIMALS. The foundation of these divisions rests on the organization of the various animals as they exist in nature. This division has been already noticed in the Introductory article to the present edition of Goldsmith, pp. XXXV-Xxxviii. The first great division of the vertebrated animals is that of the Mammalia, to which the Second Part of the present edition of 'The History of Animated Nature' is devoted.

Those variable characters which establish the

The mammalia should be placed at the head of the animal kingdom, not only because it is the class to which man himself belongs, but because it surpasses all others in the enjoyment of more numerous faculties, of more delicate sensations, of a greater variety of motions, and where all these properties are combined so as to form beings of greater intelligence, fruitful in resources, less the slaves of instinct, and more susceptible of improvement. This class pos-mesticated races that these exceptions are chiefly found. Thus, sesses characteristics peculiar to itself, in its viviparous generation [the young being born alive], in the manner by which the fœtus [or embryo] is nourished in the womb, by means of the placenta, and in the mammæ, or breasts, by which the young are suckled. On the contrary, the other classes are oviparous [or produced from eggs previously laid by the parent]; and if we contrast them generally with the mammalia, we shall find that they possess numerous points of resemblance among themselves, which clearly exhibit a special plan of organization in the general system of the vertebrated animals. As the degree of their respiration is moderate, the mammalia are in general adapted for walking upon the ground, but at the same time their movements are performed with vigour, and in a continuous manner. For this reason, the articulations of their skeletons have very precise forms, which determine the direction and extent of their motions with precision, Some of them can, however, raise themselves in the air by means of elongated limbs, connected by extensible membranes; others have their limbs so much shortened

that they cannot move easily except in the water. But this circumstance by no means deprives these last-mentioned animals of the general characters of

the class.

The young are nourished for some time after their birth by milk,-a fluid peculiar to this class, and produced by Mammæ or breasts. This secretion commences at the moment of birth, and continues as long afterwards as the young may require. It is from these mamma that the class has obtained its name of Mammiferes, or Mammalia. This being a characteristic peculiar to the animals composing this class, serves to distinguish them more precisely from the remaining classes than any other external char

acter.

It remains, however, still doubtful whether the Monotremata possess mammæ or not. Meckel could find no traces of mamma in the male Ornythorhynchus, but thought he perthe abdominal muscles," he observes, "a small round mass, which at first bore the appearance of a portion of intestine accidentally pushed into this situation. I was satisfied that this gland was a true mamma, an opinion which was more forcibly impressed upon my mind from its structure and situation, from its marked development in the female, and the want of it in the male, or at least its existence in so minute a degree as to Blainville asserted, a priori, and without having ever examined a female Ornythorhynchus, that its mamma must exist, and would no doubt be discovered hereafter, on account of the very numerous analogies which this animal presents to the other Mammalia. Sir Everard Home describes the Mammie of the Ornythorhynchus in the Philosophical Transactions' for 1802. On the other hand, M. Geoffroy considers that these organs are not real mamma, but are analogous only to the lateral glands of the muscardin (Myoxus Avellanarius). Again,

ceived them in the female. "I detected, on the right side of

have hitherto eluded the closest examination." Oken and De

the Ornithorhynchus is either oviparous, or ovo-viviparous,
which properties are always connected with the absence of
mamma, and its bill evidently appears unfitted for sucking;
so that, upon the whole, it must still be considered as doubtful
whether these organs really perform the functions of mammæ.
Although the mammæ are always found, with the above ex-
ception, in the females, yet the males of many species are
destitute of them, as the Hamster (Cricetus Vulgaris), and the
Lemur mongoz, while in some others, as the horse, they are
found in an usual situation. The mammæ are frequently less
numerous in the male than in the female. Milk has often been
secreted in the breasts of men, as well as of other male ani-
mals, such as the goat, ox, dog, eat, and hare. Blumenbach
describes a he-goat which it was necessary to milk every other
day for the space of a year. It is very common to find milk in
the breasts of newly-born children of both sexes; and the
same circumstance has likewise been observed in the calf and
foal. In the cetacea and marsupialia, the mammæ do not pro
ject so as to form udders or breasts, but they lie flat under the
skin. In general the mammæ are very observable only during
the period of suckling, at which time they are largely distended
with milk, except in those animals having them placed upon
the chest, when they possess that graceful and delicate form
observable in the human female of the Caucasian race during
the bloom of youth. It is very difficult to discover them in
the marsupial animals, except at the period when the young
are actually contained in the abdominal pouch of the female.
greatly in different animals. It would appear that there are
The number, as well as the position of the mamma, varies
frequently twice as many teats as the number of young usually
produced by each animal. Yet this rule is not without several
exceptions, among which may be included the Guinea-pig
(Cavia cobaia), and the domestic sow. Indeed it is among the do-
according to Buffon, the mamma of the sow vary from ten to
twelve of the cow from four to six; of the rat from eight to
ten. The mare and ewe may have from two to four, while the
ferret sometimes has three on the right side, and four on the
left. From these examples we may readily perceive that no
fixed law is observed in the number of the mamma.
essential differences of the mammalia among them-
selves, are derived jointly from the organs of touch
and from those of mastication. The forms of the
hands or feet chiefly determine the degree of their
agility and dexterity, while those of their teeth not
only correspond to the nature of their aliments, but
relative to the digestive organs, and even to the in-
draw along with them innumerable other distinctions,
tellectual functions. The degree of perfection in
the organ of touch is estimated by the number of the
fingers, their capability of motion, and the extent in
which their extremities are enveloped in a nail or
hoof. A hoof which entirely surrounds that extrem-
ity of the finger nearest to the ground, blunts its
sense of touch, and renders it incapable of grasping
an object. The opposite character is found in the
nail, composed of a single layer, which covers the
other the utmost sensibility of touch. The nature
one side only of the extremity, and leaves to the
of their ordinary food is determined by the form of
the molar or cheek teeth, and this always corresponds
to the mode in which the jaws are articulated.
In order to cut flesh, the molars must be serrated or
saw-like, and the jaws united in the manner of scis-
sors, which can only open and shut. On the con-
trary, in order to crush grains, it is necessary that
they should have molars with flat crowns, and jaws
that the crown of these teeth should possess that
capable of moving horizontally. It is also requisite
kind of inequality which the millstone acquires, that
its substance should be of different degrees of hard-
ness, and that some of its parts should wear away
more rapidly than others.

All animals with hoofs [thence called ungulated] must of necessity be herbivorous, that is, possessed of molar teeth with flat crowns, because the structure of their feet prevents them from seizing a living prey. It is different with those animals said to be unguiculated, from their possessing nails. They are susceptible of several varieties, and may partake of different species of food; but they differ still more from each other in the extent of motion possessed by the fingers, and the delicacy of their touch. There is one characteristic which exercises a mighty influence on the degree of their address and means of industry-that is, the power of opposing the thumb to the other fingers, for the purpose of seiz