to the external air, to comfort and refresh it: on the contrary, metallic mines are known not only to warm it with their exhalations, but often to destroy all kinds of vegetation by their volatile corrosive fumes. In some mines, dense vapours are plainly perceived issuing from their mouths, and sensibly warm to the touch. In some places neither snow nor ice will continue on the ground that covers a mine; and over others the fields are found destitute of verdure.1 The inhabitants, also, are rendered dreadfully sensible of these subterraneous exhalations, being affected with such a variety of evils proceeding entirely from this cause, that books have been professedly written upon this class of disorders. Nor are these vapours, which thus escape to the surface of the earth, entirely unconfined; for they are frequently, in a manner, circumscribed to a spot. The grotto Del Cane, near Naples, is an instance of this; the noxious effects of which have made that cavern so very famous. This grotto, which has so much employed the attention of travellers, lies within four miles of Naples, and is situated near a large lake of clear and wholesome water." 15 Nothing can exceed the beauty of the landscape which this lake affords; being surrounded with hills covered with forests of the most beautiful verdure, and the whole bearing a kind of amphitheatrical appearance. However, this region, beautiful as it appears, is almost entirely uninhabited; the few peasants that necessity compels to reside there, looking quite consumptive and ghastly, from the poisonous exhalations that rise from the earth. The famous grotto lies on the side of a hill, near which place a peasant resides, who keeps a number of dogs for the purpose of showing the experiment to the curious. These poor animals always seem perfectly sensible of the approach of a stranger, and endeavour to get out of the way. However, their attempts being perceived, they are taken and brought to the grotto; the noxious effects of which they have so frequently experienced. Upon entering this place, which is a little cave, or hole rather, dug into the hill, about eight feet high, and twelve feet long, the observer can see no visible marks of its pestilential vapour; only to about a foot from the bottom, the wall seems to be tinged with a colour resembling that which is given by stagnant waters. When the dog, this poor philosophical martyr, as some have called him, is held above this mark, he does not seem to feel the smallest inconvenience; but when his head is thrust down lower he struggles to get free for a little; but in the space of four or five minutes he seems to lose all sensation, and is taken out seemingly without life. Being plunged in the neighbouring lake, he quickly recovers, and is permitted to run home, seemingly without the smallest injury. 14 Boyle, vol. iii. p. 238. 15 Kircher, Mund. Subt. vol. i. p. 191. This vapour, which thus for a time suffocates, is of the humid kind, as it extinguishes a torch. and sullies a looking-glass; but there are other vapours perfectly inflammable, and that only require the approach of a candle to set them blazing. Of this kind was the burning well at Brosely, which is now stopped up; the vapour of which, when a candle was brought within about a foot of the surface of the water, caught flame like spirits of wine, and continued blazing several hours after. Of this kind, also, are the perpetual fires in the kingdom of Persia. In that province, where the worshippers of fire hold their chief mysteries, the whole surface of the earth, for some extent, seems impregnated with inflammable vapours. A reed stuck into the ground continues to burn like a flambeau; a hole made beneath the surface of the earth, instantly becomes a furnace, answering all the purposes of a culinary fire. There they make lime by merely burying the stones in the earth; and watch with veneration the appearances of a flame that has not been extinguished for times immemorial. How different are men in various climates! This deluded people worship these vapours as a deity, which in other parts of the world are considered as one of the greatest evils. NOTE A.-Internal Heat of the Globe. The existence of volcanoes and hot springs led intense heat in the interior of the earth. philosophers long ago to suspect that there was an The opinion of Werner, that the former arose from the combustion of masses of coal at moderate depths, was set aside by the discovery that the seat of the volcanic agents was under the primitive rocks, of course far below the coal-formation, and that the composition of lavas was the same in all parts of the world. The notion advanced by others and favoured by Goldsmith-that hot springs might owe their origin to the accidental mixture of substances producing chemical action in the bowels of the earth, was equally inadequate to account for the permanency of these springs-their existence without any known change in temperature for ages. At length a third species of evidence presented itself in the tempergenerally higher than the mean temperature of the ature of deep mines, which it was observed was year in the district. It was thought by some-as by our author in the above text-that the heat might arise from the breaths of the workmen, and the lights used by them. This explanation to be sure did not account for the difference of temperature said to be observed between shallow and deep mines; but the existence of the difference alluded to was doubted; and to this, as the point upon which the controversy hinged, several philosophers, especially M. Cordier, tion. The result is thus announced by the Parisian a professor of geology in Paris, directed their attenprofessor:-"1. Our experiments fully confirm the existence of a subterranean heat, which is peculiar to the terrestrial globe,—does not depend on the solar increase of the subterranean heat does not follow the rays, and increases rapidly with the depth. 2. The same law over the whole earth; it may be twice or thrice as great in one country as in another. These differences do not bear any constant proportion either to the latitude or longitude. 4. The increase is more rapid than has been supposed; it may go as high as one degree of Fahrenheit for 24 3. feet, but the mean, so far as the present observations | particularly of the carburetted hydrogen: both of have yet extended, cannot be fixed at less than one them flow or exude from the cutters, fissures, and degree for 45 feet." In all probability, however, minute pores of the coal; and when in small quantity the increase will be found to be in a geometrical pro- in the forehead of a mine in solid coal, they make a gression, as investigation is extended; in which case hissing noise. The carbonic acid seldom comes off the crust will be found to be much thinner than it is very suddenly in large quantities. From its weight often calculated to be. Taking as correct the pre- it is not liable to a sudden change of place, and sent observed rate of increase, the temperature would though it is invisible, its line of division from the I be as follows:- Water will boil at the depth of 2,430 common atmospheric air is most distinctly found by yards; lead melts at the depth of 8,400 yards; there approaching it with a lighted candle or lamp; for is a red heat at the depth of seven miles; gold melts though the candle burns with its ordinary brightness at twenty-one miles; cast-iron at seventy-four miles; at the distance of three inches from the carbonic soft-iron at ninety-seven miles; and at the depth of acid, the instant it is placed within this air, it is one hundred miles there is a temperature equal to the suddenly extinguished: it produces the same instant greatest artificial heat yet observed, a temperature effect upon the strongest flame of coals; sometimes capable of fusing platina, porcelain, and indeed every the upper part of the mine next the roof has the air refractory substance we are acquainted with. These perfectly good, while the pavement has a stratum of temperatures are calculated from Guyton Morveau's carbonic acid, of a foot or two in thickness, resting || corrected scale of Wedgewood's pyrometer, and if upon it. we adopt them, we find that the earth is fluid at the depth of 100 miles from the surface, and that, even in its present state, very little more than the soil on which we tread is fit for the habitation of organized beings. Cordier, therefore, considers the whole globe as a mass of fused matter intensely hot, covered with a solid crust or shell whose thickness is about one 63d part of its semidiameter, and upon which crust man and all his works are suspended over the molten abyss. NOTE B.-Gases in Mines-The Safety Lamp. a great proportion of moisture. The workmen who breathe it every day are generally healthy, and it is reckoned a specific in some complaints, it being à common practice to send down children affected with the hooping cough to breathe in it. As the flame of a candle is a correct index of the presence of this air, the miners have instant warning, and stop their advancing any farther, till means are used to drive it away. Comparatively few lives have been lost by this gas. Those who have perished from its effects, had generally gone amongst it without a candle, and of course were insensible of its presence, till they dropped down from its deleterious effects on the constitution. When men are rendered senseless by inhaling this air, they can be recovered if brought quickly into good air, but if they remain any time in it, all attempts to recover them are ineffectual. It must be remarked, however, that as The coal-mines of Great Britain were wrought on the air of these coal-mines which abound with cara very limited scale, and with comparatively little bonic acid, has always a very considerable mixture system, till after the beginning of the eighteenth cen- of it through the whole of the works, the air in this tury. It was not till the introduction of the steam-state is reckoned very salubrious, though mixed with engine, for drawing water in the first place, and coals afterwards, that the coal-mines began to be wrought on an extensive scale; even to this period the ventilation of mines was conducted in a very rude, uncertain, and irregular manner, and for many years afterwards. Every bed of coal abounds less or more with deleterious air, which is of two kinds; the one is specifically heavier, the other lighter, than common air; the natural consequence of which is, that the one rests in the deepest or lowest places, the other, from its levity, ascends to the highest places of the mine. The first is known by the common provincial names of choke damp, black damp, styth, or bad air; the other is known by the name of foul air, fire damp, or inflammable air. The one is the carbonic acid, the other the carburetted hydrogen gas of the chemist. The precise qualities of the carbonic acid of coal-mines have been comparatively little attended to, as its destroying powers have not operated extensively. The nature and composition of the carburetted hydrogen have closely engaged the attention of philosophers for the last ten years. According to the best authorities these gases are of the following specific gravity and weight: The carburetted hydrogen is not found in all coalmines, and is seldom seen where the carbonic acid abounds. In Scotland there are extensive districts where the inflammable air was never seen, and others where it is very abundant. In the numerous collieries situated upon the north banks of the river Forth, it is only found in one very limited district, and in only two districts upon the south banks of the Forth. In the very extensive coal-fields in the Lothians, south from the city of Edinburgh, it is unknown: whereas in the coal-fields around the city of Glasgow, and along the coast of Ayr, it is found very abundant; at the same time there are coal-fields in that very extensive range, where it never was seen; but where it is not seen, the carbonic acid abounds. The production of these gases renders the system of the ventilation of coal-mines a chief point in the system of mining, particularly where the inflammable air abounds, by which the lives of the workmen and the prosperity of the mining concern may be instantly destroyed. It would require a long dissertation, and the most minute detail, to give a clear view of the almost infinite variety of cases connected with the accumulation of inflammable air in the mines of a colliery, and of the plans and methods which have to be employed and varied for the ventilation, corresponding to each particular situation of the mines. With daily misfortunes of a lesser or greater degree were the collieries of Great Britain carried on from year to year, every one struggling against the direful ravages of the inflammable air: but it baffled the skill of the most experienced engineers, and all the precautions of their most unwearied diligence and anxious attention. The general question and anxious inquiries were, Can no remedy be devised to avert these awful calamities, to deliver an industrious class of society from such desolating catastrophes? Many plans were proposed, but they were altogether inapplicable. In some instances, fish, which, in the incipient stage of putrefaction, give a strong phosphoric light, had been tried to give light to the miner in very dangerous cases; and the light produced by the collision of flint and steel was universally employed when candles could not be used without producing an explosion. The machine for producing this light is named a steel mill. Philosophers proposed the various kinds of phosphorus, but these were altogether insufficient for the purpose. When tried in the mines they only produced a most melancholy light, and rather tended to render "the darkness visible." In the meantime the mines were extended, and the melancholy catastrophes constantly increased. At last an explosion and catastrophe took place at Felling colliery, near Gateshead, in the county of Durham, about a mile and a half distant from Newcastle, more dreadful and melancholy in their consequence than any which had ever taken place in the collieries of Great Britain. This colliery was working with great vigour and under a most regular system both as to the mining operations and ventilation; the latter was effected by a furnace and air-tube placed upon a rise-pit on elevated ground south from the turnpike road leading to Sunderland. The depth of the winning was above 100 fathoms; twenty-five acres of coal had been excavated, and such was the execution of work, that from one pit they were drawing at the rate of 1,700 tons of coal weekly. Upon the 25th May, 1812, the night-shift was relieved by the day-shift of miners at eleven o'clock forenoon, one hundred and twenty-one persons were in the mine, and had taken their several places, when at half-past eleven o'clock the gas fired, and produced a most tremendous explosion, which alarmed all the neighbouring villages. The subterraneous fire broke forth with two heavy descharges from the dip-pit, and these were instantly followed by one from the rise-pit. A slight trembling, as from an earthquake, was felt for about half-a-mile around the colliery, and the noise of the explosion, though dull, was heard at from three to four miles distance. Immense quantities of dust and small coal accompanied these bla-ts, and rose high into the air, in the form of an inverted cone. The heaviest part of the ejected matter, such as corves, wood, and small coal, fell near the pits, but the dust, borne away by a strong west wind, fell in a continued shower to the distance of a mile and a half from the pit. In the adjoining village of Heworth it caused a darkness like that of early twilight, and covered the roads so thickly, that the footsteps of passengers were imprinted in it. The heads of both shaft-frames were blown off, their sides set on fire, and their pulleys shattered in pieces. The coal dust ejected from the rise-pit into the horizontal part of the ventilating tube was about three inches thick, and soon burnt to a cinder; pieces of burning coal driven off the solid stratum of the mine were also blown up this shaft. Of the 121 persons in the mine, at the time of the explosion, only 32 were drawn up the pit alive; and of these, three died within a few hours after the accident. Thus were no less than 92 persons killed in an instant by this desolating pestilence. The scene at the pit-mouth cannot be described. This fatal misfortune at Felling roused the minds of every one connected with coal-mines, in order to find, if possible, a remedy for preventing such catastrophes. Al which was supported by blowing air from a pair of small bellows through a stratum of water in the bottom of the lamp, while the heated air passed through water by a recurved tube at the top. By this process, the air within the lamp was completely insulated from the external air, and it appears that this was the first lamp that ever was taken into a body of inflammable air in a coal-mine at the exploding point, without producing an explosion of the surrounding gas. Dr. Clanny made another lamp upon an improved plan, by introducing into it the steam of water produced from a small vessel at the top of the lamp, heated by the flame. For these inventions the Doctor twice received the thanks of "The Society for preventing accidents in Coal-Mines;" and he also received the silver and afterwards the gold medal from the Society of Arts in London. though these lamps, invented by Dr. Clanny, were upon philosophical principles, displayed much ingenuity, and were absolutely safety-lamps for mines, yet their construction prevented them from being generally used. It appears that nothing further was attempted in this important matter, until the accident at Felling colliery, as before noticed, when Sir Humphrey Davy, Mr. James Stevenson, engineer, Killingworth colliery, Newcastle, and Dr. John Murray of Edinburgh, brought forward safety-lamps, in the year 1816, each constructed upon different principles. Sir Humphrey Davy's lamp was made of fine iron wire gauze, without any glass; that of Mr. Stevenson was made of a strong glass cylinder having a metal plate at top, and another at bottom, perforated with very small holes to permit the air to pass to and from the lamp; and that of Dr. Murray was a glass lamp, or rather lanthorn, to which good atmospheric air was brought by means of a long leather pipe from the air-course. Of these Dr. Murray's lamp was not applicable but in a very few cases; the lamps of Sir Humphrey Davy and Mr. Stevenson were both complete safety-lamps in their principle, and are applied in practice; but that of Sir Humphrey Davy is decidedly the best, and is generally used in Great Britain. Having no glass it is not easily injured, and sufficient light for the miner passes through the wire gauze. To each of these gentlemen the world is highly indebted, and in particular the mining interest of Great Britain for their individual exertions. The safety-lamp of Sir Humphrey Davy was instantly tried, and approved of by Mr. Buddle, and the principal mining engineers at Newcastle. No one was more zealous to prove its safety and introduce it into the mines, than the Rev. John Hodgson, of Heworth. He descended the mines, entered amongst the inflammable air, and fully satisfied himself of its absolute safety, in order that he might induce the miners of his parish to use it, half of whom he had seen so lately swept away by the dreadful explosion before narrated. The invention of this lamp has produced a new era in the coal-mining of Great Britain. The steel mills were very expensive, and in certain cases produced explosions, whereas the safety-lamp can be carried without danger amongst inflammable gas ready to explode: and although the wire become red-hot, an explosion of the gas will take place inside of the lamp, without communicating inflammation to the external gas. CHAP. IX. OF VOLCANOES AND EARTHQUAKES. Dr. William Reid Clanny, of Sunderland, had, in the year 1813, turned his attention to the construction of a lamp which would burn amongst inflammable air, and, though an explosion might take place in the lamp, would not communicate flame to the external surrounding air. This he accomplished by means of MINES and caverns, as we have said, reach but a an air-tight lamp with a glass front, the flame of very little way under the surface of the earth, and we have hitherto had no opportunities of | remarkable; Ætna in Sicily, Vesuvius in Italy, exploring further. Without all doubt the won- and Hecla in Iceland. Ætna has been a volcano ders that are still unknown surpass those that for ages immemorial. Its eruptions are very have been represented, as there are depths of violent, and its discharge has been known to thousands of miles which are hidden from our cover, for a certain space around, sixty-eight feet inquiry. The only tidings we have from those deep. In the year 1537, an eruption of this unfathomable regions are by means of volca- mountain produced an earthquake through the noes, those burning mountains that seem to dis- whole island for twelve days, overturned many charge their materials from the lowest abysses houses, and at last formed a new aperture, which of the earth. A volcano may be considered as overwhelmed all within five leagues round. The a cannon of immense size, the mouth of which is cinders thrown up were driven even into Italy, often near two miles in circumference. From and its burnings were seen at Malta, at the disthis dreadful aperture are discharged torrents of tance of sixty leagues. "There is nothing more flame and sulphur, and rivers of melted metal. awful," says Kircher, "than the eruptions of Whole clouds of smoke and ashes, with rocks of this mountain, nor nothing more dangerous than enormous size, are discharged to many miles' dis- attempting to examine its appearances, even long tance; so that the force of the most powerful after the eruption has ceased. As we attempt to artillery is but as a breeze agitating a feather in clamber up its steepy sides, every step we take comparison. In the deluge of fire and melted upwards, the feet sink back half-way. Upon matter which runs down the sides of the moun- arriving near the summit, ashes and snow, with tain, whole cities are sometimes swallowed up an ill-assorted conjunction, present nothing but and consumed. Those rivers of liquid fire objects of desolation. Nor is this the worst; for, are often two hundred feet deep; and when as all places are covered over, many caverns are they harden, frequently form considerable hills. entirely hidden from the sight, into which, if the Nor is the danger of these confined to the erup- inquirer happens to fall, he sinks to the bottom, tion only: but the force of the internal fire strug- and meets inevitable destruction. Upon coming gling for vent, frequently produces earthquakes to the edge of the great crater, nothing can sufthrough the whole region where the volcano is ficiently represent the tremendous magnificence situated. So dreadful have been these appear- of the scene. A gulf two miles over, and so deep ances, that men's terrors have added new horrors that no bottom can be seen; on the sides pyrato the scene, and they have regarded as prodigies midical rocks starting out between apertures what we know to be the result of natural causes. that emit smoke and flame; all this accompanied Some philosophers have considered them as vents with a sound that never ceases, louder than thuncommunicating with the fires of the centre; and der, strikes the bold with horror, and the relithe ignorant as the mouths of hell itself. Aston-gious with veneration for HIM that has power to ishment prodúces fear, and fear superstition: the inhabitants of Iceland believe the bellowings of Hecla are nothing else but the cries of the damned, and that its eruptions are contrived to increase their tortures. control its burnings.” In the descriptions of Vesuvius or Hecla, we shall find scarcely anything but a repetition of the same terrible objects, but rather lessened, as these mountains are not so large as the former. But if we regard this astonishing scene of ter- The crater of Vesuvius is but a mile across, ror with a more tranquil and inquisitive eye, we according to the same author, whereas that of shall find that these conflagrations are produced Etna is two. On this particular, however, we by very obvious and natural causes. We have must place no dependence, as these caverns every already been apprized of the various mineral sub- day alter; being lessened by the mountain's stances in the bosom of the earth, and their apt- sinking in at one eruption, and enlarged by the ness to burst out into flames. Marcasites and fury of another. It is not one of the least repyrites, in particular, by being humified with markable particulars respecting Vesuvius, that water or air, contract this heat, and often endea- | Pliny the naturalist was suffocated in one of its vour to expand with irresistible explosion. These, eruptions; for his curiosity impelling him too therefore, being lodged in the depths of the earth, or in the bosom of mountains, and being either washed by the accidental influx of waters below, or fanned by air, insinuating itself through perpendicular fissures from above, take fire at first by only heaving in earthquakes, but at length by bursting through every obstacle, and making their dreadful discharge in a volcano." These volcanoes are found in all parts of the earth. In Europe there are three that are very 1 Buffon, vol. i. p. 291. 2 See Supplementary Note A, p. 89. 3 See Supplementary Note A, p. 95. near, he found himself involved in smoke and cinders when it was too late to retire; and his companions hardly escaped to give an account of the misfortune. It was in that dreadful eruption that the city of Herculaneum was overwhelmed; the ruins of which have been lately discovered at sixty feet distance below the surface, and, what is still more remarkable, forty feet below the bed of the sea. One of the most remarkable eruptions of this mountain was in the year 1707, which is finely described by Valetta; a part of 4 See Supplementary Note B, p. 96. whose description I shall beg leave to trans- | and in the middle of April, with much difficulty late. "Towards the latter end of summer, in the year 1707, the mount Vesuvius, that had for a long time been silent, now began to give some signs of commotion. Little more than internal murmurs at first were heard, that seemed to contend within the lowest depths of the mountain; no flame, nor even any smoke, was as yet seen. Soon after some smoke appeared by day, and a flame by night, which seemed to brighten all the campania. At intervals, also, it shot off substances with a sound very like that of artillery, but which, even at so great a distance as we were at, infinitely exceeded them in greatness. Soon after, it began to throw up ashes, which, becoming the sport of the winds, fell at great distances, and some many miles. To this succeeded showers of stones, which killed many of the inhabitants of the valley, but made a dreadful ravage among the cattle. Soon after, a torrent of burning matter began to roll down the sides of the mountain, at first with a slow and gentle motion, but soon with increased celerity. The matter thus poured out, when cool, seemed upon inspection to be of vitrified earth, the whole united into a mass of more than stony hardness. But what was particularly observable was, that upon the whole surface of these melted materials a light spongy stone seemed to float, while the lower body was of the hardest substance of which our roads are usually made. Hitherto there were no appearances but what had been often remarked before; but on the third or fourth day, seeming flashes of lightning were shot forth from the mouth of the mountain, with a noise far exceeding the loudest thunder. These flashes, in colour and brightness, resembled what we usually see in tempests, but they assumed a more twisted and serpentine form. After this followed such clouds of smoke and ashes, that the whole city of Naples, in the midst of the day, was involved in nocturnal darkness, and the nearest friends were unable to distinguish each other in this frightful gloom. If any person attempted to stir out without torch-light, he was obliged to return, and every part of the city was filled with supplications and terror. At length, after a continuance of some hours, about one o'clock at midnight, the wind blowing from the north, the stars began to be seen; the heavens, though it was night, began to grow brighter; and the eruptions, after a continuance of fifteen days, to lessen. The torrent of melted matter was seen to extend from the mountain down to the shore; the people began to return to their former dwellings, and the whole face of nature to resume its former appearance." Bishop Berkeley gives an account of one of these eruptions in a manner something different from the former.5 "In the year 1717, Phil Trans. vol. ii. p. 209. I reached the top of Mount Vesuvius, in which I saw a vast aperture full of smoke, which hindered me from seeing its depth and figure. I heard within that horrid gulf certain extraordinary sounds, which seemed to proceed from the bowels of the mountain, a sort of murmuring, sighing, dashing sound; and between whiles, a noise like that of thunder or cannon, with a clattering like that of tiles falling from the tops of houses into the streets. Sometimes, as the wind changed, the smoke grew thinner, discovering a very ruddy flame, and the circumference of the crater streaked with red and several shades of yellow. After an hour's stay, the smoke, being moved by the wind, gave us short and partial prospects of the great hollow; in the flat bottom of which I could discern two furnaces almost contiguous; that on the left seeming about three yards over, glowing with ruddy flame, and throwing up redhot stones with a hideous noise, which, as they fell back, caused the clattering already taken notice of.-May 8, in the morning, I ascended the top of Vesuvius a second time, and found a different face of things. The smoke ascending upright, gave a full prospect of the crater, which, as I could judge, was about a mile in circumference, and a hundred yards deep. A conical mount had been formed, since my last visit, in the middle of the bottom, which I could see was made by the stones, thrown up and fallen back again into the crater. In this new hill remained the two furnaces already mentioned. The one was seen to throw up every three or four minutes, with a dreadful sound, a vast number of red-hot stones, at least three hundred feet higher than my head, as I stood upon the brink; but as there was no wind, they fell perpendicularly back from whence they had been discharged. The other was filled with red-hot liquid matter, like that in the furnace of a glass-house, raging and working like the waves of the sea, with a short abrupt noise. This matter would sometimes boil over, and run down the side of the conical hill, appearing at first red-hot, but changing colour as it hardened and cooled. Had the wind driven in our faces, we had been in no small danger of stifling by the sulphureous smoke, or being killed by the masses of melted minerals that were shot from the bottom. But as the wind was favourable, I had an opportunity of surveying this amazing scene for above an hour and a half together. On the fifth of June, after a horrid noise, the mountain was seen at Naples to work over; and, about three days after, its thunders were renewed so, that not only the windows in the city, but all the houses, shook. From that time it continued to overflow, and sometimes at night were seen columns of fire shooting upward from its summit. On the tenth, when all was thought to be over, the mountain again renewed its terrors, roaring and raging most violently. One cannot form a juster idea of the noise, in the |