ernment to give £100 to any needy burgher having twelve sons living. A bill was passed establishing a school of mines at Pretoria; another provides for technical schools in all districts, open only to burghers' sons. Another bill extends the municipal franchise to non-resident owners of property worth £100, and at the same time disqualifies Uitlanders for the office of municipal councilor, unless a separate law allows them the privilege, as in Johannesburg. The discovery of a diamond mine near Pretoria of similar formation to the Kimberley deposits led to the adoption of a bill limiting ownership to 40 claims 30 feet square and prohibiting the leasing and amalgamation of claims. Subsidies to Uitlander schools were continued for three years more, the condition of receiving a subsidy being that South African history is taught, and Dutch up to a certain standard.

Dr. Leyds resigned in May the State Secretaryship and went to Europe as diplomatic representative of the South African Republic to Berlin, the Hague, Paris, Lisbon, Rome, and St. Petersburg. Judge Reitz, formerly President of the Orange Free State, was chosen to succeed him as State Secretary.

Controversy regarding Suzerainty.-When the British withdrew from the Transvaal after their defeat at Majuba Hill they restored complete self-government to the inhabitants subject to the suzerainty of the Queen, as was set forth in the preamble of the convention of Pretoria of 1881. The term suzerainty was chosen to describe superiority of a state possessing independent rights of government subject to reservations with reference to certain specified matters. The most material of the reserved rights of England in the Transvaal was the control of the external relations of the reconstituted Transvaal state, including the conclusion of treaties and the conduct of diplomatic intercourse with foreign powers. In 1883 a deputation was sent to London to secure the abolition of British suzerainty and the stipulations in regard thereto. This deputation negotiated a new convention in 1884, from which the word suzerainty was removed and the reserved rights of England were foregone, save that all treaties concluded with foreign powers, except the Orange Free State, or with native tribes beyond the borders, can be vetoed by the British Government at any time within six months of their conclusion. In the draft of the London convention Lord Derby expunged every reference to suzerain rights contained in the convention of Pretoria. The preamble of 1884 expressly acknowledges a new state, the South African Republic, in the place of the Transvaal territory, subject to the suzerainty of her Majesty.

The right of British suzerainty was first asserted anew by Mr. Chamberlain in his dispatch of Oct. 16, 1897. He had contended that the alien law as first passed by the Volksraad in 1896 was a breach of the London convention. The Transvaal Government demurred to this and refused to revoke the law or suspend its operation, holding that every state has the right to restrain foreign elements that are dangerous to the peace and safety of its inhabitants; refused also the invitation to discuss the question with the British agent, but offered to submit it to arbitration. Notwithstanding this declaration, the law was revoked, with a view to legislation being introduced anew. Mr. Chamberlain in his answer on Oct. 16, 1897, maintained the claim of the British Government to be consulted before legislation is introduced restricting the entrance of aliens other than natives. The rights invoked from the general principles of international law were dismissed as not applying in this case, which was "not that of a treaty between two states on an equal

footing, but a declaration by the Queen of Great Britain and Ireland of the conditions upon which she accorded complete self-government to the South African Republic, subject to her suzerainty." He contended that the preamble of the convention of 1881 was not replaced by the preamble of the new convention, but was still in force, though the articles of the latter were substituted for the articles of the Pretoria convention. In his view, under the two conventions, the Queen held toward the South African Republic the relation of a suzerain who had accorded to the people of that Republic selfgovernment upon certain conditions, and he held it to be incompatible with that position to submit to arbitration the construction of the conditions on which she accorded self-government to the Republic. Dr. Leyds replied to this dispatch on April 16, 1898, recounting the negotiations, with Lord Derby's explanations and elisions, showing that not only by its terms, but in its intent, the convention of 1884 put an end to British suzerainty. Lord Derby said that by the omission of those articles of the convention of Pretoria which, assigned to her Majesty and to the British resident certain specific powers and functions connected with the internal government and foreign relations of the Transvaal State, the Government of the South African Republic would be left free to govern the country without interference and to conduct its diplomatic intercourse and shape its foreign policy, subject only to the requirement embodied in the fourth article of the new draft, that any treaty with a foreign state shall not have effect without the approval of the Queen. The report of the deputation that the obnoxious provisions of the Pretoria convention were revoked, on the strength of which it was ratified by the Volksraad, had never been challenged on the part of the British Government until now by Mr. Chamberlain. Dr. Leyds pointed out that the two preambles were in direct opposition to each other, and could not be both in force at the same time. Lord Derby in his letter covering the draft of the new convention said that this was proposed in substitution for the convention of Pretoria. Dr. Leyds proposed that the question of suzerainty be arbitrated by a friendly third power. The present independence of the South African Republic derives its formal acknowledgment, but in no sense its real origin, he held, from an international agreement, acknowledged as equally binding on both parties. Great Britain had acknowledged the international character of the convention by agreeing to refer the first article to a friendly power, and could not contend that the interpretation of agreements between powers not on the same footing is not to be referred in case of disagreement to international law in the same manner as treaties between powers of the same standing, since there is no other law to which it can be referred; otherwise the British Government would constitute itself the sole judge of a document to which it is a party.

In a dispatch dated May 7, 1897, the State Secretary had proposed the abrogation of the convention of London, arguing that Great Britain had violated it by the armed incursion of Dr. Jameson. Mr. Chamberlain, in his dispatch, asserted that the raid was the act of private individuals, for which the British Government was in no wise responsible. Dr. Leyds, in his reply, pointed out that the troops which raided the territory of the Republic were British troops, serving under the British flag, enlisted, armed, and equipped in British territory under the orders of the Administrator, who derived his authority from the British Crown, commanded by officers holding her Britannic Majesty's commissions, and that the raid was prepared with the aid and advice of Cecil Rhodes, who was Prime

Minister of Cape Colony, with the connivance of Sir Graham Bower, imperial secretary to the High Commissioner for South Africa.

Mr. Chamberlain complained that an extradition treaty negotiated with Portugal in 1893 had not been submitted to the British Government in accordance with the fourth article of the London convention, requiring treaties on their completion to be submitted to the approval of the Queen. The Portuguese Cortes did not ratify the treaty, being unwilling to offend the British Government, and Dr. Leyds seized upon this fact to justify the attempted evasion of the convention, arguing that a treaty is not completed until it is ratified. In the beginning of March, 1898, the Volksraad passed a resolution empowering the Government to hand over any fugitive demanded by any state with which no regular extradition treaty exists, the Government to decide whether his extradition is prima facie justifiable. By this act and a reciprocal one on the part of the Portuguese Government the necessity of a treaty of extradition was avoided, but since the proceedings were formally correct the British Government raised no objections. The Government declined to enter into a treaty of extradition with Rhodesia. In June the British military authorities restored to their former rank the thirteen subordinate officers who took part in the Jameson raid and who had been allowed to resign their commissions after their trial and conviction. They had been led to believe that their leaders had the secret sanction of the Imperial Government for the expedition. Sir John Willoughby and Col. Frank Rhodes, who were deeply involved in the planning and execution of the raid and were in confidential relations with its authors, were not reinstated in the army.

Swaziland. The native territory on the east of the Transvaal inhabited by the Swazis, an offshoot of the Zulu nation, was recognized as independent in the London convention of 1884, but the convention of 1890 vested the Government of the increasing white population in a government committee, and a new convention concluded between the South African Republic and Great Britain on Dec. 10, 1894, placed Swaziland under the protection and administration of the Republic. The area of this territory is about 8,500 square miles, with a population of about 50,000 Kaffirs and 1,000 whites, Boer graziers for the most part, with some British traders and miners. The natives are ruled by their paramount chief, Bunu, otherwise called Ngwane, born in 1877, who has an army of 18,000 warriors. Tin of the value of £11,500 and £4,344 worth of gold were produced in 1896. The Transvaal authorities, who were not allowed to impose a native hut tax till 1898, have collected not over £3,000 annual revenue, while the deficit of about £47,000 a year has been paid out of the treasury of the Republic.

The three years' grace fixed by the Swaziland convention having expired, the Transvaal Government in the beginning of 1898 made arrangements to collect a hut tax from the natives. Bunu, the king, at first evaded notice by running away into the mountains, but in March he held an indaba, at which he announced that he would collect the tax, if it were insisted upon, and hand it over to the Government. In May a burgher force marched into Swaziland to bring to terms the Swazi king, who had killed' his head induna. Bunu, who was summoned to attend a judicial inquiry on July 5, fled over the Natal border. An indaba was held on July 14, at which the chiefs and the Transvaal commissioner agreed temporarily to recognize the queen mother as regent. The British authorities delivered up Bunu for trial. The collection of the hut tax was begun on Aug. 1.

British South Africa.-The total area of the territories committed in 1891 to the administration and commercial exploitation of the British South Africa Company, including British Central Africa, or North Rhodesia, is about 600,000 square miles. The part south of the Zambesi, known as South Rhodesia, is 350,000 square miles in extent. The pioneers of the company in 1890 settled in Mashonaland, then a province of Matabeleland, by permission of Lobengula, the Matabele chief, having built 400 miles of roads through Bechuanaland to reach this country, which was reputed to be rich in gold. In 1893 the colonists ousted the Matabeles, and the company took possession of their country also. Matabeleland has an area of about 61,000 square miles, with an estimated population of 240,000, while Mashonaland is 80,000 square miles in extent and its population is about 210,000. The gold regions are believed to cover 5,250 square miles, but their development is slow and their actual value uncertain. There were 5,708 white persons in the country at the time of the Matabele rising in 1896.

Silver, copper, tin, antimony, arsenic, lead, coal, and other minerals have also been found. The British and Boer volunteers who aided in the conquest of the Matabeles were allowed to peg out 1,070 farms of 6,000 acres each. In Mashonaland about 5,000 square miles have been surveyed. The capital of Rhodesia is Salisbury. Other towns are Buluwayo, the old Matabele capital, Umtali, Victoria, Gwelo, Enkeldoorn, and Melsetter. Telegraphs connect these places with Mafeking and Cape Colony, and the line has been extended north of the Zambesi to Blantyre, in Nyassaland. This extension, establishing telegraphic communication between Cape Town and Blantyre, a distance of 2,000 miles, was opened on April 20, 1898. A further extension was built to Kotakota, 263 miles north of Blantyre, and is being carried through to Lake Tanganyika. The company's telegraph system on Sept. 30, 1897, consisted of 1,856 miles of line, with 2,538 miles of wire. The railroad built by the company from Kimberley to Vryburg in British Bechuanaland, 126 miles in length, has been transferred to the Cape Government, and the line has been extended to Buluwayo, 453 miles. The whole cost of the railroad, 579 miles in length, was £2,000,000. Another railroad company has constructed a railroad from Beira, on the east coast, to Chimoio and Umtali. It was expected to reach Salisbury in the beginning of February, 1899, giving a total length of 1,086 miles of railroads established by the British South Africa Company. To the Bechuanaland Railroad the Imperial Government gives a subsidy of £20,000 a year for ten years and the Chartered Company gives £10,000 a year.

The capital of the British South Africa Company, originally £1,000,000, was increased in 1895 to £2,500,000, and in November, 1896, to £3,500,000. There is also a 5-per-cent. debenture debt of £1,250,G00. The company derives its revenue from mining, trading, and professional licenses, the sale of stands for business in the towns, and the postal and telegraph services.

The revenue for the year ending March 31, 1895, was £118,883, of which £53,047 were derived from the sale of stands. In 1896 the total receipts were £399,090, including £211.676 from the sale of stands. The receipts exceeded the expenditure by £69,650, but in 1897, owing to native disturbances and the rinderpest, the revenue fell away to £122,542, while the expenditure on account of the rebellion alone was £2,266,976. The Mashonaland uprising was not finally quelled before September, 1897. The rebellion of the Matabele and Mashonas cost £3,000,000, including the cost of the local volunteer forces and of the imperial troops, £360,000 paid in

compensation to settlers and the cost of food distributed among the natives after the war was over. The casualties among the whites numbered 639, about 10 per cent. of the whole population, including 264 murdered or missing, 187 who lost their lives through wounds or other causes, and 188 wounded. The revenue for 1898, exclusive of stand sales, amounted to £196,653, the highest figure yet reached. After all the expenses connected with suppressing the rebellion were paid out of the new capital raised in London, a balance of £500,000 remained to meet the ordinary expenses of the company, The suspense account, consisting of money spent on the Jameson raid which Mr. Rhodes and his associates have promised to repay, amounted to £91,000. At the meeting of the shareholders in April, 1898, it was decided to increase the capital to £5,000,000, issuing for the present only 250,000 shares to the shareholders pro rata at £2 a share and reserving 1,250,000 shares to be issued from time to time when additional capital is needed to promote the commercial interests of the company. When the shares were offered, instead of £500,000 the public subscribed £1,250,000. Cecil J. Rhodes, Alfred Beit, and Rochfort Maguire, who retired from the directorate in 1897 on account of their connection with the Jameson raid into the Transvaal, were re-elected in 1898. In anticipation of the erection of South Rhodesia into a self-governing colony, it was decided to keep separate accounts of the commercial business of the company and the amounts received and expended by it in discharge of its duties as a government, with a view to having the aggregate deficits assumed by the people as a public debt when they assume full responsibility for the administration of the country. The accumulated annual deficits in the ordinary budget up to March, 1897, amounted to £1,145,000, to which must be added the cost of suppressing the native insurrections and of combating the rinderpest, railroad guarantees and deficits, and other items.

The British Government after the Jameson raid transferred the control of the military forces to the High Commissioner and decided to divest the company of a great part of its political and administrative responsibilities and privileges, the directors having already, in 1895, suggested that a voice in the administration be given to the inhabitants as a step toward full responsible government. The plan adopted by the Secretary of State for the colonies was announced in January, 1898. The High Commissioner before had control over legislation and administration, but it was not exercised. In the future all legislation will be passed locally by the Legislative Council of South Rhodesia, comprising 2 elective members for Mashonaland, 2 for Matabeleland, and 5 members nominated by the company, insuring it a majority so long as it remains responsible for the finances. Ordinances passed by the Legislative Council may be disallowed within a year by the Colonial Secretary, either of his own motion or at the request of the board of directors of the Chartered Company in London. All orders or resolutions of the board must be submitted to the Secretary of State for his approval. He will have power, moreover, to remove any director or official of the company in London. Administrators are appointed, one for Matabeleland and one for Mashonaland, each having an executive council and each being a member and one of them president of the Legislative Council. An imperial officer will be appointed and paid by the Crown, styled the Resident Commissioner, who will control the employment of the armed forces, but have no power to deal directly with the officials of the administration. He has a seat and a Voice in the Legislative Council, but no right to vote. On information furnished by him the High

The comman

Commissioner will act in disallowing ordinances and in giving or withholding his approval of appointments and removals from office. In extraor dinary cases the High Commissioner shall have power to legislate by proclamation. dant of the forces is appointed and paid by the Crown. In employing the forces for police purposes, including the suppression of internal disorder, he shall ordinarily be guided by the wishes of the administrator and his subordinates, referring to the Resident Commissioner for instruction in cases when he thinks it undesirable to comply with their requirements, and in no case undertaking military operations without his authority.

After Cecil Rhodes and his companions, J. W. Colenbrander, Dr. Hans Sauer, Mr. Stent, and John Grootboom, went to the rebellious Matabele in the Matoppo hills and secured their final submission, they surrendered an enormous number of arms and have since remained perfectly loyal. Native commissioners were brought from Natal. Salaried indunas exercise a limited control in the different districts. Natives indentured to white landowners are protected by the native commissioners from wrong, and for the remainder of the native population a reserve of tillable land has been set apart in each district. The pegging of farms has been prohibited within the limits of the reservations. Local government had its first trial in the establishment of municipalities at Salisbury and Buluwayo in virtue of regulations that came into operation in September, 1897.

The establishment of railroad communication with the seaboard in both directions has enabled the mining companies to carry out development work on some of the properties which Mr. Hammond pronounced to be true fissure veins and to import machinery and begin crushing. Six quartz mills were started in 1898. There were 156,235 registered mining claims on Jan. 31, 1898, covering 4,438 miles of reef, exclusive of claims abandoned after registration. The South Africa Company has decided to take a more active part in the development of minerals. Under the peculiar mining law adopted for this country a prospector is not restricted to a single claim, but is allowed to stake out twenty, on which no monthly license or other tax or royalty is paid until the mine is developed. Instead of this, when a company is floated to work the mine, the Chartered Company receives 50 per cent. of the purchase money. In arrangements with companies already started the company has reduced its share of the vendor's scrip. In order to hasten the development of the gold mines the South Africa Company will appoint engineers to examine promising claims, and on the starting of a new company will subscribe a part of the working capital. The total amount of capital raised in England, first and last, by the Chartered Company is about £6,000,000, including debenture bonds, but not including £2,000,000 guarantee for the Bechuanaland Railroad, the cost of telegraph lines and of the Mashonaland and Beira railroads, and other items which would bring the total amount of capital invested up to £10,000.000. This £6,000,000 Cecil Rhodes proposes to shift to the colonists of Rhodesia in the form of a public debt, leaving the company in possession of its commercial privileges and its right to half the minerals. The British South Africa Company in 1895 offered to incorporate in the Rhodesian Constitution a provision to give preferential tariff rates to British goods, but the proposal was rejected by the Liberal Cabinet, which wished to have the provision cover imported goods from any country. In 1898 it was renewed and was accepted by Lord Salisbury's Government, the provision being that the duty to be charged on British goods shall never

exceed the duty at present levied by Cape Colony, which is a tariff for revenue only, averaging about 9 per cent.

The administrators appointed under the new charter are Mr. Milton at Buluwayo and Capt. Lawley at Salisbury. Sir Marshall Clarke was appointed Resident Commissioner.

British Central Africa.-The territory north of the Zambesi that was given over to the administration of the British South Africa Company in 1891 has an area of about 250,000 square miles, with an estimated population of 650,000. There are now over 350 Europeans in this region, which has lately been invaded by East Indian traders. Settlements under British administration have been established in the Tanganyika district, on Lake Mweru, and near Bangweolo on the Luapula river. The territory includes the populous Barotse kingdom. The boundary on the west between the British sphere and the Portuguese territory is to be determined by an Anglo-Portuguese commission appointed under a provisional agreement terminating in July, 1898. The head of the administration and representative of the Chartered Company is Major P. Forbes.

British Central African Protectorate. Nyassaland was declared a British protectorate in May, 1891. The British commissioner and consul general is Alfred Sharpe. The area of the protectorate is about 38,000 square miles. The population in 1897 numbered 300 Europeans, 263 Indian traders, and 844,995 natives. Blantyre, in the Shire Highlands, the chief town, has a population of 6,000 natives and 100 Europeans. In this district the settlers have coffee plantations, producing 850,000 pounds in 1897. They also grow rice, wheat, oats, and barley, and raise sheep and ponies. The imports were valued in 1896 at £82,760, and exports at £19,670; imports in 1897 at £80,054, and exports at £23,299. Steamboats convey goods between the river and lake ports and the British concession in Chinde, at the mouth of the Zambesi. There are 5 English gunboats kept on the Shire and Zambesi rivers. The armed force employed in the protectorate to preserve order and check the slave trade consists of 185 Sikhs and 800 native troops, besides 200 police. A telegraph line connects Blantyre with Zomba, Tete, Fort Salisbury, and the Cape system.

The Angoni Zulus, who number about 40,000 fighting men and inhabit the country on the borders of British Central Africa, Portuguese East Africa, and Northern Rhodesia, under their King, Mpseni, lived in peace with the white settlers in their country until at the beginning of 1898 the warlike ardor of the young men could no longer be restrained by the old King. The British Central Africa rifles and a force of Sikhs relieved Fort Jameson, whence Capt. Brake, setting out on Jan. 18, with 300 Atonga riflemen and 50 Sikhs, marched to the aid of Mr. Wiese, who was beseiged at Loangweni, in the heart of the Angoni country. After a skirmish Capt. Brake occupied Loangweni, and remained there until nearly 1,000 troops, under Col. Manning, regular Sikhs and natives, with field guns and Maxims, were concentrated in the territory. Dividing into four columns, the force devastated the country, capturing all the cattle and destroying the villages and cultivated spots. After Singu, their leader, was taken prisoner the Angonis gave up the contest, having made but a feeble resistance. Mpseni surrendered on Feb. 9. After this campaign, in which only two whites lost their lives, Europeans settled freely on the land of the Angonis within the Nyassaland limits and in the neighboring Charterland. In April the southern Angonis of the Domwe district of North Rhodesia,

who had remained quiet since their subjugation in 1896, assembled to the number of 6,000 to resist the occupation of their country by white immigrants. Troops were sent from Zomba to punish them. German Southwest Africa.-The German protectorate has a total area of 322.450 square miles, with a population of about 200,000 Hottentots, Damaras, Bushmen, and Kaffirs. The whites in June, 1897, numbered 2,628. Of the male population, 1,221 were Germans and 333 British and Boers. The local revenue in 1895 was 27,740 marks, and the Imperial Government appropriated 1,000,000 marks, leaving still a deficit of 1,429,840 marks, for the expenditure was 2,457,580 marks. The local revenue for 1898 was estimated at 790,200 marks, to which the Imperial Government added a contribution of 3,015,000 marks to meet the estimated expenditure of 3,805,200 marks. The imports through the British port of Walfisch Bay, hitherto the only available seaport in this part of the country, were valued at 944,695 marks in 1894, and the exports at 106,833 marks. The trade overland is much greater. The Germans have planned to build a harbor at Swakopmund and are building a railroad to connect it with Windhoek, the seat of the administration, which is 180 miles inland. The natives of Damaraland rear cattle in great herds. Goats of the native breed are raised, and sheep have been introduced from Cape Colony. The country is comparatively barren and waterless except in the north, where an Anglo-German company has obtained a concession. In December, 1897, the Zwartberg Hottentots in the northern part of the territory, where the Germans have undertaken to rear cattle, attacked the whites and were dispersed by the troops after a fight in which one German was killed and Capt. von Estorf, the commander, and another were wounded. Portuguese Possessions. - Portuguese East Africa is the coast region north and south of the Zambesi lying east of British Central Africa and British South Africa. It is divided into the provinces of Mozambique, Zambesia, and Lourenço Marques, the military district of Gaza, and the districts of Inhambane, Manica, and Sofala. The two last have been committed to the administration of the Mozambique Company, which received in 1891 a royal charter granting sovereign power for fifty years. The country between Lake Nyassa, the Rovuma, and the Lurio is administered under a royal charter by the Nyassa Company. The Zambesia Company is authorized to carry on industrial, commercial, agricultural, and mining operations. Another company has sugar plantations on the lower Zambesi.

The revenue of the colony for 1898 was estimated at 3,952,820 milreis, and the expenditure at 3,700,040 milreis. The imports at the port of Mozambique were £87,760 and the exports £59,418 in value in 1896: imports at Quilimane in 1894 were valued at £94,537, and exports at £76,344; imports at Beira amounted to £160,570, exports to £17,950, and the transit trade to £142,960; and at Lourenço Marques in 1896 the imports amounted to £638,410, exports to £17,857, and the transit trade to £1,518,970. The number of vessels that called at Mozambique in 1896 was 101, of 204,834 tons, and at Lourenço Marques 391, of 559,646 tons. Englishmen and others have located 1,325 claims for gold mining in Manicaland, but have not developed them, owing to lack of means of communication. The Delagoa Bay Railroad runs 57 miles to the Transvaal border, whence it is continued for 290 miles to Pretoria. The Beira Railroad has been completed from Fontesvilla to Massikesse, 118 miles, and the end sections from Beira to Fontesvilla and from Massikesse to Umtali and Salisbury are under construction. There are 950 miles of

telegraph lines within the colony. In January, 1898, the Portuguese force in Gasaland had a conflict with the natives on the Limpopo, who had captured a party of soldiers that was sent to arrest an unruly chief. Major Mousinho de Albuquerque was succeeded as Governor by Col. Ferreira in the autumn. Arrangements were made for the sale of Delagoa Bay to Great Britain in order to relieve the Portuguese colony from financial embarrassment. Germany recognized the British right of preemption, having come to a general understanding with England in regard to the African question. The impending decision of the Swiss arbitrators in the matter of the seizure by the Portuguese Government of the Delagoa Bay Railroad made the sale of the port and railroad almost a necessity, the arbitrators being expected to award over £1,000,000 to the American claimant, the widow of Col. Edward McMurdo, the original promoter and chief owner of the railroad.

CHEMISTRY. Chemical Theory.-In 1888, Mr. William Crookes, presenting a theory of the generation of the elements (in accordance with the periodical system) by successive evolutions, devised a graphic representation of the process, in which he supposed the space projection of the scheme to be spiral. In this figure the elements were placed along the spiral line in the order of their atomic weights, and so fitted themselves that the successive members of each group fell, as they should, one beneath another, in the line of an ordinate drawn vertically across the spiral. In order to find places for the new elements, argon, helium, and krypton, Mr. Crookes has modified his figure and made it, instead of a plain spiral, to run in the form of a succession of figure 8s. Such a figure will result from three very simple simultaneous motions (of the supposed primal matter): an oscillation to and fro (suppose east and west); an oscillation at right angles to the former (suppose north and south); and a motion at right angles to these two (suppose downward), which, in its simplest form, would be with unvarying velocity. "Let me suppose," he says, "that at the birth of the elements, as we now know them, the action of the vis generatrix might be diagrammatically represented by a journey to and fro in cycles along a figure-of-eight path, while, simultaneously, time is flying on, and some circumstance by which the element-forming cause is conditioned (e. g., temperature) is declining (variations which I have endeavored to represent by the downward slope). The result of the first cycle may be represented in the diagram by supposing that the unknown formative cause has scattered along its journey the groupings now called hydrogen, lithium, glucinum, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, phosphorus, sulphur, and chlorine. But the swing of the pendulum is not arrested at the end of the first round. It still proceeds on its journey, and had the conditions remained constant, the next elementary grouping generated would again be lithium, and the original cycle would eternally reappear, and again the same fourteen elements. But the conditions are not quite the same. Those represented by the two neutrally rectangular horizontal components of the motion (say chemical and electrical energy) are not materially modified; that to which the vertical component corresponds has lessened, and so, instead of lithium being repeated by lithium, the grouping which forms the commencement of the second cycle is not lithium, but its lineal descendant, potassium. It is seen that each coil of the lemniscate track crosses the neutral line (the vertical joining the central points of the 8s) at lower and lower points. This line is neutral as to electricity, and neutral as to chemical action.

Electro-positive elements are generated on the northerly or retreating half of the swing, and electro-negative elements on the southerly or approaching half. Chemical atomicity is governed by distance from the central point of neutrality, monatomic elements being one remove from it, diatomic elements two removes," etc. The newly discovered inert elements, according to this scheme, fall into places as they stand on the neutral line: "Helium, with an atomic weight of 4, fits into the neutral position between hydrogen and lithium: argon, with an atomic weight of about 40, naturally falls into the neutral position between chlorine and potassium; while krypton, with an atomic weight of about 80, will find a place between bromine and rubidium. Of the later discovered elements, neon, with an atomic weight of about 22, may fall into the neutral position between fluorine and sodium; while metargon, with an atomic weight of about 40, may share the third neutral position with argon.

An attempt has been made by W. L. T. Addison to deduce atom forms from the crystalline modifications of the elements. Mitscherlich had observed that similar chemical compounds had the same forms, and could intercrystallize in the same crystals. Thus, calcium, magnesium, manganese, ferrous and zinc carbonates crystallize and intercrystallize in rhombohedra of apparently the same proportions. Form is thus consequent on chemical grouping and is a function of the groups of atoms. There is in the carbonate group, the author affirms, a central atom, carbon, about which the other atoms are grouped; and these outer atoms are the outer portions of the molecule, or those of easiest and first contact. The grouping is at four attractive places, and the form of the crystal being constant, the form of the molecule and the position of those areas of attraction must also be constant. The author discusses in considerable detail the form properties of the carbon crystal, and also those of the crystals of a number of other substances, drawing therefrom illustrations of his theory; and infers that malleability has a coincidence with atomic forms, permitting of interatomic mobility in their arrangement. Thus the atoms of carbon are of regular tetrahedral form, and any loose solid angle is as an apex to a tripod of equal limbs. Hence the stability of form and the rigidity of the diamond. If one angle of an aluminum atom becomes free, it may, unless checked by some other atom, rotate circularly about a line joining the two remaining angles. Thus aluminum shows a marked interatomic mobility by its malleability and its tendency to a variable crystalline form. If, in an atom of an element in Group II, Mendeleff's table, one of its areas of attraction be free, it may, unless checked by some other atom, rotate spherically about its stationary area of attraction. The interatomic mobility of such elements is shown by their increase of malleability over the elements of Group III. The interatomic mobility and malleability of the elements of Group I are increased over those of Group II by a joint in their rod form. Another factor in interatomic mobility is intensity of attraction. If chemical and crystal attractions be different manifestations of the same attraction, then, with the decrease of chemical affinity, there will be a decrease of rigidity and stability of form, with an increase of interatomic mobility and malleability. The relations described are well shown in the following comparisons: The diamond, very crystalline and hard; tin, malleable, breaking with crystalline structure; lead, soft and malleable; iron, nickel, and cobalt, brittle as compared with platinum; magnesium, zinc, cadmium, and mercury, increasing in softness with increase of atomic weight and decrease of