liam Herschel, 1738-1822, the son of a Hanoverian musician, migrated to England in 1757, and there became the most eminent astronomer of his times. His untiring efforts were successful in producing reflecting telescopes of a size never before dreamed of, and gave the science a fresh impulse. For many years he was assisted by his sister Caroline, who also published a number of independent observations.

JOHN PRINGLE NICHOL, 1804-1859, a native of Scotland, and Professor of Astronomy in Glasgow University, published a number of works on astronomy, intended to disseminate a knowledge of the general principles of the science. The chief of these are: Views of the Architecture of the Heavens; Contemplations on the Solar System; A Critical Account of the Discovery of the Planet Neptune; and The Stellar Universe. Professor Nichol published also a Cyclopædia of the Physical Sciences. His works are characterized throughout by clearness and elegance of style, being thereby admirably fitted for their special function.

WILLIAM BUCKLAND, D. D., 1784-1856, Dean of Westminster, a learned theologian and a profound geologist, was for many years Professor of Mineralogy and Geology in Oxford. His principal work is Reliquiæ Diluvianæ, or Observations on the Organic Remains in Caves, Fissures, and Diluvial Gravel. His other great work, and the one most suited for popular reading, was prepared as a Bridgewater Treatise, the subject being Geology and Mineralogy considered with reference to Natural Theology. Both works are of the highest order of merit.

Hugh Miller.

HUGH MILLER, 1802-1856, a native of Scotland, was a man of the most marked character and talents.

In early life he was employed as a day-laborer in a stone-quarry, where he not only worked out sandstone for his employers, but the geology of the old sandstone for himself, and laid the deep and broad foundations for his subsequent fame.

During the agitation attendant upon the celebrated Auchterarder case, in the Scotch ecclesiastical court, Miller published A Letter to Lord Brougham, attacking the latter's decision. The ability of this letter attracted universal attention to the hitherto unknown writer, and Miller was made editor of The Witness, established as the organ of the free church party. This position he retained until his death, and published in the pages of this journal the fruits of the geological studies in which he was engaged.

Miller's principal contributions, in book-form, to science are: The Old Red Sandstone; Footprints of the Creator; Testimony of the Rocks. The work last named has an interest apart from its scientific value, for it was the cause of the author's death. The unremitting exertion and anxiety attendant upon its preparation threw him into a highly morbid state of mind, in which he committed suicide. Miller is the author also of a volume of Poems little known, and a volume of Scenes and Legends from the North of Scotland. A large portion, also, of his First Impressions of England is devoted to the English poets.

Miller's style is a model of clearness and vigor and adaptation to the mind of the non-professional reader. No one has done more to render the science of geology popular in a legitimate way. The Testimony of the Rocks is a masterly attempt to reconcile Geology with Genesis, or rather to show that the science of the earth's formation is no more antagonistic to revelation than is astronomy, that the two are co-ordinate and not antagonistic.

GIDEON ALGERNON MANTELL, 1790-1852, was a distinguished English geologist and writer on geology. Mantell is noted for his discoveries in the Wealden formation in England. He also published a number of works popularizing the science. The most important of these are: On the Iguanodon; The Geology of the South-East of England; The Wonders of Geology, and The Medals of Creation.

DIONYSIUS LARDNER, LL. D., 1793-1859, a native of Dublin and a graduate of Trinity College, was the author of a large number of scientific works. He is chiefly known to the public by his Popular Lectures on the Steam-Engine, and in the United States by his course of Scientific Lectures, which were afterwards collected and published. Dr. Lardner was also the projector and editor of The Cabinet Cyclopædia in 134 vols., and contributed several of the treatises contained in it.

THOMAS THOMSON, 1773-1852, was in his day one of the leading chemists of the world.

Thomson was a native of Scotland and a graduate of the University of St. Andrew's. He was appointed, in 1818, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow, which position he retained until his resignation in 1846. Thomson's name is associated indissolubly with the annals of chemistry. His labors in this department of science were unremitting and highly productive of practical results. His article on Mineralogy, published in 1798, in the supplement to the Encyclopædia Britannica, was the first attempt to introduce the use of chemical symbols. Similarly, in his third edition of the Outlines of Chemistry, 1807, he introduced Dalton's atomic theory. Thomson was the discoverer of many new minerals, and the author of numerous treatises on chemistry, besides editing, after the death of his brother, James Thomson, the third edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, and founding the Annals of Philosophy.

JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON, 1796-1855, a native of Paisley, Scotland, was a Reader in Chemistry and Mineralogy in the University of Durham. He published Elements of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology; Suggestions for Experiments in Agriculture; Catechism of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology, translated into many languages; Lectures on Agriculture, Chemistry, and Geology; Contributions to Scientific Agriculture, and numerous other works of the same character; Notes on North America, agricultural, economical, and social; The Chemistry of Common Life.

NEIL ARNOTT, M. D., F. R. S., 1789 though intensely occupied in his professional pursuits, found leisure for some works of a popular character.

Among his works are A Survey of Human Progress, an Essay on Warming and Ventilating, Smokeless Fireplace, and Elements of Physics. The work last named was first published in 1827. It is natural philosophy, general and medical, explained in plain or non-technical language. Of this work, five editions, amounting to 10,000 copies, were called for within six years, and it was translated into all European languages except the Italian. Arnott's Physics was reproduced in the United States, and is a familiar text-book in our schools and colleges.

Dr. Arnott is of a Scottish family, resident near Montrose. He was educated at the Grammar-School and the University of Aberdeen. He is a practising physician in London, and Physician Extraordinary to the Queen.

SIR CHARLES BFLL, 1778-1842, was a native of Edinburgh, and a Professor of Surgery in that city, though his chief celebrity was gained in London. As a scientific surgeon, he stood at the head of his profession, and his contributions to surgical science are many and of the highest order. He published also several works of a popular cast, connected with his professional pursuits. Two of these are worthy of particular note: The Hand, its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as evincing Design, being one of the Bridgewater Treatises; and An Essay on the Anatomy of Expression in Painting. Both these works have received unqualified commendation, and have become classical on the subjects of which they treat.

WILLIAM BENJAMIN CARPENTER, M. D., F. R. S., 1813, a son of Lant Carpenter, is one of the most eminent physiologists of the century. He graduated at the University of Edinburgh, and is Professor in University College, London. His publications on Physiology have been numerous, and are regarded as of the highest authority: General and Comparative Physiology; Human Physiology; Vegetable Physiology; Popular Cyclopædia of Natural Science; Zoology and Instinct in Animals; The Microscope, its Revelations and Uses; The Use of Alcoholic Liquors, in Health and Disease, a prize essay.

GEORGE COMBE, 1788-1858, was a native of Edinburgh, and a lawyer by profession. Becoming interested in phrenology, he devoted himself almost exclusively to the advocacy of its doctrines, both by lecturing and by books. In connection with others, he established the Phrenological Journal, and he was, in his day, the leading representative of the doctrines of Gall and Spurzheim. His works are A System of Phrenology: The Constitution of Man in Relation to External Objects; Lectures on Moral Philosophy; On Phrenology; On Popular Education; The Principles of Criminal Legislation; Phrenology applied to Painting and Sculpture; Science and Religion; Notes on the United States, etc. His Constitution of Man has had a very large sale both in Eugland and America, and has been translated into German, French, and Swedish, etc.

ANDREW COMBE, M. D., 1797-1847, was a native of Edinburgh, where also he studied medicine, and practised. He wrote much on the popular aspects of medical science: Observations on Mental Derangements; The Principles of Physiology applied to the Preservation of Health; The Physiology of Digestion; Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy, etc. Dr. Combe, like his brother George Combe, was a convert to phrenology. His writings have circulated extensively in the United States.

WILLIAM YOUATT, 1777-1847, was Professor in the Royal Veterinary College, London. He has written a large number of books, which are not only valuable as authorities in his special line of knowledge, but have a general interest for their humane tendencies: Canine Madness; The Horse; Sheep, Their Breeds, Management, and Diseases; Cattle; The Dog, its History and Diseases; The Pig; The Complete Grazier; The Stock-Raiser's Manual, etc.

IV. WRITERS ON RELIGION AND THEOLOGY.

Chalmers.

Thomas Chalmers, D. D., LL. D., 1780-1847, was the most eminent Scotch divine of his day, and one of the great men of all time.

Chalmers first became celebrated as a preacher in the Tron Church, Glasgow, where his pulpit discourses attracted great attention. His abilities as a writer of the first order became conspicuous by the essay on Christianity, which he prepared for the Edinburgh Encyclopædia. He next appeared as a great and original thinker on the difficult questions of political economy, particularly those connected with pauperism, and his writings on this subject are alone a noble monument of his genius. He was appointed to the chair of Moral Philosophy in the University of St. Andrew's, and afterwards to that of Theology in the University of Edinburgh. He became the active and acknowledged leader of the Free Church party in the disruption movement, and when the crisis came, he resigned his professorship. He was made Professor of Theology in the Theological School founded by the Free Church, and he continued to the end of his days to devote his great talents to the work of organizing and consolidating its affairs. His pre-eminent abilities obtained recognition in his receiving the degree of LL. D. from the University of Oxford, and in being elected a corresponding member of the Royal Institute of France, "honors never before accorded to a Presbyterian divine, and seldom to a Scotchman."

Chalmers's works, including those published posthumously, and the four volumes of Memoirs by his son-in-law, Dr. Hanna, which consist in some measure of extracts from his Diary and Letters, amount to 38 volumes. The subjects are as follows: Natural Theology, 2 vols.; Christian Evidences, 2 vols.; Moral Philosophy, 1 vol.; Commercial Discourses, 1 vol.; Astronomical Discourses, 1 vol.; Congregational Sermons, 3 vols.; Sermons on Public Occasions, 1 vol.; Tracts and Essays, 1 vol.; Introductory Essays to Select Authors, 1 vol.; Polity of Nations, 3 vols.; Church Establishments, 1 vol.; Church Extension, 1 vol.; Political Economy, 2 vols.; Parochial System, 1 vol.; Lectures on the Romans, 4 vols.: Daily Scripture Readings, 3 vols.; Sabbath Scripture Readings, 2 vols.: Sermons Illustrative of Different Stages of his Ministry, 1 vol.; Institutes of Theology, 2 vols.; Prelections on Butler's Analogy, 1 vol.; Memoirs, 4 vols.

"We meet Dr. Chalmers, as we should the war-horse in Job, with feelings which almost unfit us for marking his port or measuring his paces: 'his neck is clothed with thunder, the glory of his nostrils is terrible, he paweth in the valley, and rejoiceth in his strength.'"-Congregational Magazine. "To activity and enterprise he has read a new lesson, to disinterested but far-seeing goodness he has supplied a new motive, to philanthropy he has given a new impulse, and to the pulpit a new inspiration; and whilst he has added another to the short catalogue of this world's great men, he has gone up, another and a majestic on-looker, to the cloud of witnesses."- North British Review.

Chalmers was great in whatever he undertook. work was what he did in leading the Free Church. work was probably his Astronomical Discourses. thus far had such enduring popularity.

As a man of affairs, his greatest As a man of letters, his greatest None of his writings certainly have

The Bridgewater Treatises.

The Rev. Francis Henry Egerton, Earl of Bridgewater, at his death, 1829, left eight thousand pounds sterling, to be paid to the person or persons who should prepare a suitable work on the power, wisdom, and goodness of God, as shown in the creation. The sum was divided between eight persons, each of whom prepared a “Bridgewater" Treatise. They are the following:

1. DR. CHALMERS: The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of Man.

2. DR. JOHN KIDD: The Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical Condition of Man.

3. DR. WHEWELL: Astronomy and General Physics, with reference to Natural Theology.

4. SIR CHARLES BELL: The Hand, its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as evincing Design.

5. DR. ROGET: Animal and Vegetable Physiology, with reference to Natural Theology.

6. PROF. BUCKLAND: Geology and Mineralogy, with reference to Natural Theology. 7. DR. KIRBY: The History, Habits, and Instincts of Animals.

8. DR. PROUT: Chemistry, Meteorology, and Digestion.

The whole have been printed in 12 vols., and are considered an extremely valuable contribution to the literature of the subject.

Tracts for the Times.

Among the noticeable features, in the theological literature of this period, is a remarkable series of Essays, under the title of Tracts for the Times.

These Tracts were of various sizes, from small pamphlets, such as usually pass under the name of tracts, up to good-sized volumes.

The Tractarian movement began in 1833. The originators of it were Pusey, Keble, J. H. Newman, R. II. Froude, Rose, Isaac Williams, Ward, and Oakely. The movement began with a private meeting of a few clergymen at the house of Rev. Hugh James Rose, at Hadleigh, in Suffolk. These gentlemen thought that the Church of England was in danger from certain political tendencies in the Government, and they resolved to undertake to counteract these tendencies by writing a series of thoughtful and scholarly tracts, setting forth, in a calm and sober way, the views which they held in regard to the character and functions of the church. The main points on which they insisted were the doctrines of Apostolical Succession, Baptismal Regeneration, and The Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The writers called themselves Anglo-Catholics.

The Tracts for the first two or three years attracted little attention. After a time, however, as one tract followed another, and as the doctrines set forth became more and more sharply defined, the public mind became excited, and a general agitation ensued, which shook to the foundations not only the Church of England, but the Episcopal Church in the United States. A more remarkable instance of great prac tical results from a quiet but persistent written discussion is hardly to be found.