fumes. Possibly there is something which can be mixed with formaldehyde so that they may act together and accomplish the desired result.

Schoolhouses and Churches.-The disinfection of large rooms like schoolhouses and churches is occasionally the problem for a health officer to solve. It is at first a difficult one for him because he apparently must use such a large amount of material that his apparatus will not supply it. But it should be remembered that infection is not in the air itself but on something, and generally near or on the floor; also that much longer time can be taken for the disinfectant to act. It is the floor, seats, and lower woodwork of such rooms which need the treatment, and the wiping of these with the disinfectant is the important thing. Where floors are not injured by wetting, they may be well sprinkled with formaldehyde Saturday morning, in the case of schoolrooms, and the room closed till Sunday night and efficient fumigation secured. The permanganate method is easily enlarged also to supply gas for fumigating very large rooms.

I believe, however, that schoolhouses ought to be disinfected occasionally even if no contagious disease has appeared among the scholars. In fact, I believe they can be and should be kept well disinfected, so to speak, all the time school is in session. This can be done, as I know by experience, with little trouble and expense. A solution of formaldehyde can be made by diluting the forty per cent, which has no disagreeable odor but will kill disease germs by long action upon them. Let the janitors of schoolhouses use such a solution to sprinkle floors before sweeping or to wet the sawdust used in collecting the dirt, and it will penetrate cracks and act upon the dust which contains bacteria and prevent their growth. Many diseases not commonly classed as infectious are really so and spread by germs floating from dust. Keep this dust disinfected by having this weak solution used often and see if the general health of the school as to "colds" is not improved.

Books-As to the disinfection of books, I would say there is great need of it. More than is commonly thought, they furnish between their leaves ideal places for preservation of infectious matter. When closed, such matter is kept away from air and light, which are two of Nature's great disinfectants. The germs of consumption are specially liable to be thus collected and kept to menace future readers. This applies to public library as well as school books. Now, in the first place, I welcome any excuse for burning up the old dirty school books, and if possible infection can furnish an excuse for this, I would do it at once without wasting a disinfectant upon them. But many books are not of that class and should be treated in some way. I recommend having a box of sufficient size with a porous removable false bottom, set up a few inches from the real; under this put some absorbent, and then stand the books on end on the false bottom with leaves free as possible, pour in onto the absorbent, formaldehyde solution of full strength and shut the box. Let them thus stand over night or longer and disinfection is complete. It would be well to have all the school books of a town disinfected once a year at least.

Persons and Clothing.-As to the disinfection of persons, town health officers are not commonly called upon to do it, but clothing can be disinfected in a box as described for books, or by hanging in a small closet exposed to formaldehyde fumes evaporating from a shallow broad dish on the floor. The best disinfecting process for an individual is a good bath.

DISCUSSION ON DISINFECTANTS

BY MR. EDGAR B. MOORE OF RUTLAND.

Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen:—

I hardly know what to say after listening to Professor Robinson, who has certainly covered the ground most thoroughly in regard to formaldehyde disinfection.

Perhaps a few words from my own experience during the past five years may be of some little value. During this time I have used formaldehyde exclusively as a disinfectant, by the advice of Doctor Caverly.

First, with the Mulford generator, which is certainly effective, as the solution of forty per cent formaldehyde is forced into the apartment in the form of superheated steam, which penetrates the cracks, crevices, surfaces, clothes and hangings to as great an extent as any method yet discovered. The main difficulty with that machine is the time required to evaporate the liquid and the ease with which it gets out of order. After it has been out of use for some time, you may get to a place where you are to disinfect, and find the pump out of order or some other thing, and after a few expressions which would n't be used in polite society you take the apparatus back and to the shop for investigation and possible repairs.

Next, I made a sprinkling apparatus out of a second-hand copper fire extinguisher. By attaching a common bicycle pump on the side and a small piece of rubber tubing with a nozzle filled with fine holes, I have a simple contrivance, inexpensive and easy to keep in repair. Then by hanging sheets through all the rooms of a house I can easily and quickly apply the formaldehyde to a whole house if necessary, and this works as well as any of the systems I have yet tried.

For a few months I have been using the permanganate of potash with formaldehyde, as recommended by Professor Robinson, and I like it very much; it seems to me to be as effective as either of the other methods. The only objection that I think of is that it requires two trips, so when the distance is great I use the sprinkler, although it requires the extra use of sheets. I agree with Professor Robinson that it is a question of quantity,

and the stronger the solution the better, but judgment should be used, for certainly some apartments need much more than others, on account of difference in cleanliness.

The physician could help the officer very much, if, when they are called to a case of contagious disease, they would have the carpets, hangings and cushions removed from the sick room. It is most discouraging to go into a room filled with all sorts of plunder; chenille portieres at all the doors, lace curtains and multitude of cushions, which of course seem very comfortable things for well people, but are entirely out of place in a sick room, and should all be removed. I know of but two physicians in our town who insist on those things being removed, Dr. Caverly being one. Unless those things are removed we cannot feel quite sure of complete disinfection.

If you leave a house giving instruction to open the windows and doors in from six to eight hours, and then to take up the carpets and take down portieres and other hangings and to thoroughly clean the rooms, the occupants think they are being put to a good deal of trouble which the disinfectant ought to take care of. So I think if the doctors would insist upon those things being removed some trouble would be saved.

I know of only one case where there was apparently re-infection and that was in a case of scarlet fever. There I used the Mulford generator. I thought the rooms were thoroughly fumigated, but in a short time, about three months, two more cases appeared in the same family and I was led to believe that my job had not been thoroughly done. The next time I had every thing taken out, paper taken off the walls, ceilings whitened, walls, finish and floors washed with a solution of bi-chloride, then repapered and painted, with the result that not another case has appeared, though occupied by families having small children, who had to be assured that the apartment was perfectly safe before they would move in.

Under the circumstances I don't think I ought to take any more of your time. Undoubtedly you all have some question ready to ask the Professor and I think the time would be better spent in getting out of him all we can, and for that reason I will close.

Mr. President and Gentlemen:—

In fumigation for the purpose of disinfection after contagious cases, we have adopted a plan for the liberation of formaldehyde gas recommended by the Maine State Board of Health. Their method consists of the use of permanganate potash and the forty per cent solution of formaldehyde. A tin vessel ten inches in diameter by eight inches in height, with a funnel shaped top addition about seven inches, serves the purpose very well and is not expensive, and can be made by any worker in tin. The flaring top is made detachable for convenience. Six and one half ounces of permanganate of potash to sixteen ounces of the formaldehyde solution has been found to be the best proportion. This is ample for from 1,000 to 1,500 cubic feet of space. Two or three pints of the formaldehyde solution may

be used at once in this vessel if needed. It is well to spread some newspapers on the floor, as with the first ebullition there may be a little slopping over. Ordinary coarse crystals of the permanganate is all that is required. This can be bought for about twenty-five cents a pound.

By this method the gas is liberated so rapidly that the ordinary closing of doors and windows is enough, so that caulking and pastings of cracks is saved. After four hours doors and windows can be opened and rooms aired out as rapidly as possible.

One great advantage of this method is the absolute removal of any danger from fire. If cold weather, it is an advantage to have the rooms to be fumigated well warmed. The penetration of the gas liberated in that way seems to be much greater than from the use of candles or other generating apparatus that we have tried. This is due to the very large volume in so short a time. In thirty seconds after pouring the solution on the permanganate, which should be evenly distributed over the bottom of the vessel, the operator will be obliged to get out or be suffocated.

HEALTH OFFICERS, THEIR DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES.*

BY HENRY D. HOLTON, A. M., M. D.,

SECRETARY VERMONT STATE BOARD OF HEALTH.

I fully appreciate the honor of addressing the Health Officers of New Hampshire.

It is a pleasure and an inspiration to look into the faces of men who are engaged in the highest, most philanthropic and divine work, that of preventing suffering and death. The public health is the most important subject to which you can give your attention. Upon the sanitary measures taken to promote the public health, depends the prosperity and development of the state in all its relations. The public health is the foundation on which repose the happiness of the people and the power of a country. The care of the public health is the first duty of a statesman.

A recent writer has said that speculation no longer plays a part in considering the nature and cause of communicable diseases. The mysteries in which they were clothed for centuries have given way before the relentless energy of modern investigation. Conjecture and theory have given way to established fact, and sanitation takes its place among the exact sciences. The list of preventable diseases is increasing. The earnestness and efficiency of health officers are necessary to the completion of this greatest of modern undertakings. The health officer is to-day the most important officer of the state or municipality.

*Read before the New Hampshire Health Officers' School.

The people of our towns and cities are demanding protection from all preventable diseases as well as nuisances, and the failure or neglect to provide this protection arouses the most violent criticism and denunciation of the authorities. In addition to this prevention of disease and the abatement of dangerous nuisances, a variety of collateral responsibilities have been developed which cannot be ignored; hence the health officer must be prepared to discharge a great variety of functions.

In answer to the demands for educated and trained sanitarians, this and other similar schools have been instituted to direct your attention to these duties and obligations and put you in possession of a few basic facts, with which, by subsequent study and reading, you may acquire some knowledge which will enable you to meet and discharge these duties and obligations. Should you desire to further inform yourselves you can take the course offered by the "Sanitation Correspondence School," now open in Philadelphia. However, if there is within this good state a member of any local board of health who has accepted and is holding his office with the remotest idea that he is to receive a generous financial compensation, he should at once resign. Any one who engages in sanitary work must be actuated by high and holy motives, love of his fellow men and philanthropic inspiration, for the arduous tasks awaiting him. His epitaph should be "he went about doing good." The sanitarian is in the truest sense a Christian philanthropist.

Having thus briefly considered the social position of the health officer, let us now consider more especially his duties. In this state your local boards are in many ways independent and free to act, especially as regards nuisances and other things injurious to the public health; you may secure a search warrant and in the day time enter any building or inclosure for the purpose of determining if a nuisance or anything injurious to the public health exists, and order it removed or yourselves cause it to be removed, having the same power as sheriffs to command assistance in removing any cause producing unhealthy conditions. In fact, anything, anywhere, whether offensive to the senses or not, if likely to prove injurious to the public health, you have the power to cause the removal and destruction of. To you is committed the purity of the water supplies of your respective towns. You may cause the water to be analyzed at your State Laboratory, and, with the approval of your State Board of Health, may prohibit its use, or even fill up a well if it is polluted. It is your duty to see that all schoolhouses, dwellings and tenements are kept clean and free from every source of danger to the public health. If necessary you may require the occupants to remove from the premises and you may proceed to clean the premises and put them in a sanitary condition.

In case a communicable disease appears in any of your towns you have the power to at once establish a quarantine, subsequently giving notice to the State Board of Health; you may also remove any persons infected with smallpox or other pestilential disease to a house provided for the treatment of such cases, and may make such regulations respecting such houses, and