In have and had we have the ejection of a sound; in work

and wrought, the transposition of one.

Important changes

are undergone by the sounds k, g, and the allied ones, nk, ng, y, as will be seen in the Chapter on Verbs.

§ 82.

i= ei

ou

ink

PERMUTATION

OF

COMBINATIONS.

to ou; as, grind, ground.

to iei; as, mouse, mice; cow, kine.
to augh; as, drink, draught.

ing
y (formerly g) to ought; as, buy, bought.
ig = ei
to ough; as, fight, fought.
eek
to ough; as, seek, sought.

to ough; as, bring, brought.

In all the words above, the change of sound has been brought about by the grammatical inflection of the word wherein it occurs. This is the case with the words life and live, and with all the rest. With the German word leben, compared with the corresponding word live in English, the change is similar.

It is brought about, however, not by a grammatical

inflection, but by a difference of Time and by a difference of Place. This indicates the distinction between the Permutation of Letters and the Transition of Letters. In dealing with Permutations, we compare different parts of Speech; in dealing with Transitions, we compare different languages, or different stages of a single language.

EXAMPLES OF THE TRANSPOSITION OF THE LETTER R.

§ 83. 1. Bird; compare Anglo-Saxon brid.

2. Board; compare Anglo-Saxon bred, German brett. 3. Brothel; compare bordel.

4. Burn; compare brand and brimstone.

5. Cart; compare Anglo-Saxon cræt, crat.

6. Corn; compare Latin granum.

7. For; compare Latin pro, Greek πρó.

8. Fright; compare Anglo-Saxon fyhrto, German furcht. 9. Frost; compare Anglo-Saxon forst, Dutch vorst. 10. Grass; compare Anglo-Saxon gærs, gers, gears. 11. Horse; compare Old German hros, German ross, Dutch ros.

12. Hundred; compare German hundert, Dutch hunderd. 13. Run; compare Anglo-Saxon yrnan.

14. Third; compare Anglo-Saxon thridde, German dritte. 15. Wrought and wright; compare work.

Compare Latin pistris for pristis, "a sea-monster;" Greek Kрadía for κapdía, "the heart;" Hebrew gazar and garaz, "to cut."

CHAPTER V.

THE NATURAL SIGNIFICANCY OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS.

§ 84. THE proposition which we shall endeavor here to support is the following: that language is not entirely arbitrary or conventional, but, on the contrary, articulate sounds have a natural adaptedness to express specific ideas.

This natural significance of sounds, although it has hitherto been exhibited imperfectly, and only in distant surmises, is now beginning to be regarded as one of the deepest and most important doctrines in philology. It is considered as an established fact that every articulate sound has naturally a specific import. For, in order to the existence of language, it is not enough that man has the organs of speech, that he has sensations and ideas, and that he has a desire to communicate them to others; but it is also necessary that sounds should have a natural adaptedness to express the particular sensations and ideas.

Although existing languages exhibit, as it were, only partial fragments and mutilated ruins of the ancient tongues once spoken on our earth, yet the principle for which we contend is still sufficiently evident in them, more especially in the popular dialects, and in the terms employed for describing sensible objects, operations, and relations. In innumerable cases, where the relation is the same, the same sound has been chosen, to speak algebraically, as the exponent of that relation.

It must, however, be remarked that the natural significancy of sounds is, for the most part, a matter of feeling, and can not be exhibited in nice logical distinctions. Instruction on this subject can only furnish hints, which may awaken attention to the life and energy which pervade language, and give a general idea of the import of sounds.

Some of our best poets have been highly commended for adapting the sound to the sense. Surely this would not be possible, unless there were some correlation between sound and sense.

The vowel constitutes the life and soul of a word, the consonant its body or form. The vowel is more fleeting and changeable, yet not entirely arbitrary.

In examining the import of the different vowel and consonant sounds, we shall endeavor to follow the order of their development. Hence we begin with the vowels.

I. The Mean Vowel a.

The sound of a in father is to be regarded as the leading

vowel-sound in the Indo-European languages; (1.) Because it is the simplest and most easily enounced; (2.) Because it is the first enounced by children; (3.) Because it is the most common vowel-sound; (4.) Because it is a part of most roots; and (5.) Because it stands at the head of most alphabets.

Among the uses of this vowel are the following:

1. As the enunciation of this vowel requires nothing but the ordinary position of the organs of speech, with a simple opening of the mouth and breathing, it is the natural expression of passion, pain, or grief; as, Sanscrit ha, Persian ah, Hebrew ahh, Arabic ah, Greek å, Latin ah, German ach, ah, English ah, Welsh a, Irish a.

2. It enters into some verbs signifying to breathe; as, Greek aw, Latin halo, halare.

3. As the first and leading vowel, it is used where no reason exists for any special vowel. Hence it is found, as stated above, in a large proportion of Indo-European roots, in the technical names of the letters in Sanscrit, &c.

II. The Extreme Vowels u and i.

U, the lowest sound in the scale of vowels, is produced deep in the breast. Hence,

1. It expresses low and obscure sounds; as, Greek μopμúρw, μορμύρω, Latin murmuro, Russian murtshu, German murren, English murmur; Greek μúšw, Latin mutio, musso, English mutter; Dutch grommelen, English grumble; Danish grum, English grum, Welsh grwm; Greek ypów, Old Latin grundio, German grunzen, English grunt.

2. It expresses the red in color (for what reason does not appear) ; as, Greek Ερυθρός, πυῤῥός, πορφύρα ; Latin ruber, rufus, purpura; German roth, Anglo-Saxon rude, English ruddy, Welsh rhuz, Armorican ruz, Latin russus, rutilus, French roux.

I, the highest sound in the scale of vowels, is produced high in the throat. Hence,

1. It expresses whatever is clear, shrill, bright, or small; as, Sanscrit didhi, to shine; Latin viridis; Greek pikpóç.

2. It expresses the white in color (for what reason does not appear); as, Prussian sipid, white; Latin lilium.

III. The Mixed Vowels o and e.

The o, which is formed from a and u, and the e, which is formed from a and i, partake of the import of the vowels whence they originate.

NOTE. The force of the vowels may be best exhibited in words which differ only in their vowels; as, Greek кpów, κράζω, κρίζω ; μακρός and μικρός; ἀλαλάζω and ἐλελίζω ; Latin cachinnor, to laugh aloud, and German kichern, to titter; English ball and pill, both from Latin pila; English gloom and gleam; flame and flimmer; shake and shiver; quake and quiver; juggle, gaggle, giggle; cluck, clack, click ; croak, crack, creak; French gronder and grincer.

In passing to the consonants, we observe that the strong or weak consonants naturally denote strength or weakness respectively, and that the consonant of a particular organ of speech usually enters into the name of that organ.

IV. The Breathing or Aspiration h.

The letter h, or the breathing, is naturally adapted to express a breathing, or whatever occasions it, an aspiration for something; as, Latin halo, to breathe; Sanscrit iha, desire; Zendish honover, desire; also, many Hebrew roots, formed with hhav, hav, and av, Latin aveo, which primarily denote breathing.

V. The Semi-Vowels w and y.

These letters, from their extreme weakness, are naturally adapted to express weakness, gentle motion, and kindred ideas; as, Latin vado (compare German waten, English wade); veho (compare German wegen in bewegen, English wag, weigh, wagon, wain, way, wave); vacillo (compare German wackeln, English waggle); verto (compare Latin versus, German -wärts, English-wards); volvo (compare German wälzen, English wallow, welter); German wallen, to spring up (whence English well); wandern (English wander); wehen, to blow (compare Latin ventus, English wind); wenden, to turn (English wend, past went); winden (English wind); weichen, to