Note 1. A preposition expresses the relation in which the conception named by a noun substantive stands to that named by another noun substantive, or asserted by a verb, or assumed by an adjective. It should, therefore, be placed as near as possible to each of the words whose relations it expresses: "The ignorance of the age in mechanical arts rendered the progress very slow of the new invention." It should be, "The progress of the new invention." The accurate or appropriate

use of prepositions can be understood only by carefully keeping in mind the exact relations which they express. It is the remark of Bopp, that at the bottom of every preposition, in its original sense, there exists a relation between two opposite conceptions; thus, before implies behind, and over, under.

Note 2. Some writers separate the preposition from its noun, in order to connect different propositions with the same noun; as, "To suppose the zodiac and the planets to be efficient of and antecedent to themselves." This form, though inelegant, is often convenient, especially in forms of law, where exactness and fullness must take place of every other consideration.

Note 3. Some writers separate the preposition from the word which it governs; as, "Milton is an author whom I am much delighted with." The form of expression is in some cases idiomatic and expressive, though a violation of a general rule.

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Note 4. Prepositions are sometimes understood; as, "He gave me a book;" "Get me some paper" He gave to me some paper; Get for me some paper. These, as explained elsewhere, are remains of Dative forms existing in the AngloSaxon, and may be parsed without the aid of a preposition. See § 450. The prepositions in, on, for, and from are understood before nouns of time and place; as, "This day," "next month," are used elliptically, for on this day," "in this month." For a somewhat different view of such sentences, see § 450.

Note 5. When a Verb with its Accusative case is equivalent to a single verb, it may take this accusative after it in the passive voice; as, "This has been put an end to."

Note 6. The word to which the preposition refers is often

omitted, especially before an Imperative; as, "He is a person not fit to converse with." The ellipsis may be supplied by whom it is introduced into the sentence; He is a person whom it is not fit to converse with. In those instances in which the preposition is treated as an adverb, there is often a noun understood; as, "The heavens above," "The earth beneath."

Note 7. Prepositions seem sometimes to be put absolutely after the perfect participle; as, "The man spoken to;" "The subject talked of."

Note 8. Prepositions are in some cases used for nouns; as, "The ins are fewer than the outs."

Note 9. UP, ON, OVER, BY, &c., are often subjoined to verbs, so that the verb and preposition can be received as a compound word; as, "To get up." "To get up." Some of these compounds are idiomatic; as, "To get up" to rise; to go onto proceed.

Note 10. Grammarians are not agreed as to the syntax of near and nigh, like and unlike, save and except, but and than, and some others. In the phrases "near him," "nigh him," some regard near and nigh as performing the office of prepositions, like the Latin words propior proximus, while others consider the preposition to as understood. In the phrases "except them" and "save them," some consider except and save as prepositions, while others regard them ast verbs in the Imperative. They were originally verbal. The words saving, barring, during, touching, concurring, relating to, originally participles, perform the functions of prepositions. Thus we see that words which were adjec tives, verbs, or participles, become prepositional in their character.

Note 11. The preposition to is made use of before nouns of place, when they follow verbs and participles of motion; as, "I went to London." But the preposition at is generally used after the verb to be; as, "I have been at London." The preposition in is set before the names of countries, cities, and large towns; as, "He lives in France." In the Devonshire dialect, "he lives to Exmouth," is used instead of "at Exmouth."

Note 12. Two prepositions in some cases come together; as, "From under the ship;"

"From before the luster of her face, White break the clouds away."

Note 13. Prepositions are elliptically construed with certain Adjectives; as, "In vain," "in secret ;" and also with certain adverbs; as, "At once." These are called adverbial phrases.

Note 14. It is a general rule that Greek, Latin, and French derivatives are followed by a preposition corresponding with that which is in composition; as, "To sympathize with;" "to expel from;" "to adapt to." To this rule there are many exceptions; as, "We submit to;" "we prefer to;" "aversion to," not aversion from.

Note 15. The following examples of the improper use of prepositions, with corrections, are from Murray's Grammar, p. 189:

"He was resolved of going to the Persian Court;"" on going," &c.

"He found the greatest difficulty of writing;" "in writing," &c.

"The English were a very different people then to what they are now;" "from what," &c.

"It is more than they thought for ;" "thought of.”

"The history of Peter is agreeable with the sacred texts;" "agreeable to," &c.

"He was made much on at Argos;" "much of," &c. "Neither of them shall make me swerve out of the path;" "from the path."

"In compliance to (with) your request."

"The rain has

been falling of a long time;" falling a long time.

Note 16. Prepositions sometimes form compound verbs, by being joined with Intransitive verbs, and also with verbs in the passive voice; as, "She smiled at him;" "a bitter persecution was carried on."

Note 17. In some cases the preposition is advantageously repeated; as, "In journeyings often, in perils of waters, in perils of robbers, in perils of mine own countrymen, in perils

by the heathen, in perils in the city, in perils on the sea, in perils among false brethren, in weariness and painfulness, in watchings often, in hunger and thirst, in cold and naked. ness."

THE COLLOCATION OF PREPOSITIONS.

§ 553. The General rule is, that the preposition shall precede the Substantive which it governs. To this rule there are exceptions. For though, in construction, it precedes the noun or pronoun dependent on it, yet in its position in the sentence it may be far separated from it, as in note 3, or even follow it. See § 561, 12.

CHAPTER VIII.

SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS.

$ 554. RULE LIII.-CONJUNCTIONS connect Propositions, sentences, and single words; as, "He is wise and she is virtuous;" "Honor your parents if you wish for happiness in life;" "William and Mary are a happy pair."

Note 1. The current statement is here given from a regard to the convenience of the rule rather than from a regard to its philological accuracy. A careful analysis of the power of the Conjunction goes far toward proving that it is a part of speech serving to show the particular mode in which one sentence is connected with another sentence, while single words are connected by prepositions, and not by conjunctions. In support of this view of the office of conjunctions, which is entertained by Harris and Stoddart, Latham asserts that there are always two propositions where there is one Conjunction, and that a part of speech that merely combines two words is a Preposition. "It is very important to remember," he adds, "that many double Propositions may be expressed so compendiously as to look like one. When this takes place, and any question arises as to the construction, they must be exhibited in their fully expanded form, i. e., the second Subject, the sec

ond Predicate, and the second Copula must be supplied. This can always be done from the first proposition: He likes you better than me he likes you better than he likes me. The compendious expression of the second proposition is the First point of note in the syntax of conjunctions.

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"555. The Second point in the syntax of conjunctions is their great convertibility. Most conjunctions have been developed out of some other parts of speech. The conjunction than is derived from the Accusative singular of the Demonstrative Pronoun. The conjunction that is derived from a Demonstrative Pronoun. The conjunction therefore is a Demonstrative Pronoun + a Preposition. The conjunction because is a Substantive, governed by a Preposition.

"One and the same word, in one and the same sentence, may be a Conjunction or Preposition, as the case may be: All fled but John. If this mean all fled except John, the word but is a preposition, the word John is an Accusative Case, and the proposition is single. If, instead of John, we had a Personal Pronoun, we should say all fled but him. All fled but John. If this mean all fled, but John did not fly, the word but is a conjunction, the word John is a Nominative Case, and the propositions are two in number. If, instead of John, we had a personal pronoun, we should say all fled but he. From the fact of the great convertibility of conjunctions, it is often necessary to determine whether a word be a conjunction or not. If it be a conjunction, it can not govern a case. If it govern a case, it is no conjunction, but a Preposition. A conjunction can not govern a case for the following reason: the word that follows it must be the subject of the second proposition, and, as such, a Nominative case.

"§ 556. The Third point to determine in the syntax of conjunctions is the certainty or uncertainty in the mind of the speaker as to the facts expressed by the propositions which they serve to connect.

"1. Each proposition may contain a certain definite absolute fact: The day is clear, because the sun shines. Here there is neither doubt nor contingency of either the day being clear or the sun shining.