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DERIVED VERBS.

§ 285. FOUR classes of DERIVED VERBS, as opposed to Primitive,

deserve notice.

I. Those ending in -en; as, soften, whiten, strengthen. The -en is a derivational affix, and not a representative of the Anglo-Saxon infinitive form -an (as, lufian to love); or the Old English -en (as, tellen, loven).

II. Transitive verbs, derived from intransitives by a change of the vowel of the root.

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In Anglo-Saxon these words were more numerous than they are at present in English.

All these intransitives form their preterits by a change of vowel; as, sink, sank; all the transitives by the addition of d or t; as, fell, fell'd.

III. Verbs derived from nouns by a change of accent; as, to survey', from a survey. WALKER attributes the change of accent to the influence of the participial termination -ing.

IV. Verbs formed from nouns by changing a final surd consonant into its corresponding sonant; as, use, to use, pronounced uze; breath, to breathe, pronounced breadhe; half, to halve; grass, to graze. LATHAM'S English Language, p. 292.

REFLECTIVE VERBS.

See

§ 286. REFLECTIVE VERBS are those which are followed by reflective pronouns. Their true nature and character will be best seen by reducing to distinct classes all the verbs which might be called by this name.

I. Those formed from transitive verbs, in which the agent truly and properly acts upon himself; as, to examine one's self, 1 Cor. 11: 28; to honor one's self, John 8: 54; to purify one's self, 1 John 3:3; to kill one's self; to praise one's self; &c.

II. Those formed from transitive verbs, in which the agent does not truly and properly act upon himself; as, to boast one's self, Ps. 52 : 1; 2 Cor. 11: 16; to delight one's self, Ps. 37: 4, 11; to exercise one's self, Acts 24: 16; to forswear one's self, Matt. 5: 33; to fret one's self, Ps. 37: 1, 7, 8; to repent one's self, Ps. 135: 14; to possess one's self, &c.

III. Verbs like those of the first and second classes, which are no longer used in their ordinary transitive meaning; as, to behave one's self, 1 Cor. 13:5; 1 Tim. 3: 15 (compare Old English behave, to restrain); to bestir one's self, 2 Sam. 5: 24 (compare Old English bestir, to move); to betake one's self, Is. 14: 32, marginal reading (compare Old English betake, to deliver); to bethink one's self, 1 Kings 8: 47; 2 Chron. 6: 37 (compare Anglo-Saxon bethencan, to consider); to wallow one's

Mention the classes of the derived verbs, with examples. What are reflective verbs? Give examples of the different classes.

self, Jer. 6: 26 (compare Old English wallow, to roll); to vaunt one's self, Judges 7:2; 1 Cor. 13: 4 (compare French vanter, to praise).

These constitute the reflective verbs in English, technically so called by grammarians, as they are now used only with the reflective pronoun. The reflective pronoun is of course without emphasis.

Note. Many verbs of the second and third classes now omit, especially in colloquial language, the reflective pronoun; as, to behave, see WEBSTER; to bethink, see WEBSTER; to boast, see 2 Cor. 7: 14; Eph. 2:9; to delight, see Mic. 7: 18; Mal. 2: 17; Rom. 7:22; to fret, see Prov. 19: 3; to repent, see Num. 23: 19; Matt. 3:2; to wallow, see Jer. 48 26; Mark 9: 20; to vaunt, see WEBSTER. So to conduct is sometimes improperly used for to conduct one's self.

IV. Many verbs are construed with a reflective pronoun of the indirect or remote object; as, to imagine to one's self.

These are a distinct class from all the rest, and require no special notice.

V. Many reflective verbs are construed with a second accusative of the factitive relation; as, to think one's self worthy, i. e., to think that one's self is worthy, Luke 7: 7; to feign one's selj a just man, Luke 20: 20.

So to drink one'e self drunk, 1 Kings 20: 16; to laugh one's self hoarse; to walk one's self tired. This is a common Teutonic idiom; compare German schlafen sich dumm, literally to sleep one's self stupid.

VI. Sometimes the reflective pronoun has the form of the simple pronoun, as in French; as, to flee one away, Am. 7: 12 (compare French s'enfuir); to get one, Num. 22: 34; Matt. 4: 10 (compare French s'en aller); to sit one down, Gen. 21: 16 (compare French s'asseoir).

These are mere Gallicisms, and, as such, have been reprobated by grammarians.

IMPERSONAL VERBS.

§ 287. The different classes of verbs in English, which have sometimes been called IMPERSONAL, are as follows:

I. Where, as in describing the operations of nature and the state of the weather, no logical subject is conceived of or expressed, but the mere event is affirmed without any reference to the agency by which it is effected; as, it thunders; it rains; it is warm. The pronoun it is here merely the grammatical subject. These are proper impersonal

verbs.

II. Where a logical subject must be conceived of, but either is not expressed, or is expressed grammatically in an oblique case; as, it strikes four; it repented the Lord because of their groanings; let it not be grievous in thy sight concerning the lad; it is over with them. These also are proper impersonal verbs.

III. Where the logical subject is not a substantive, but merely a clause or part of a sentence; as, it came to pass that God did tempt Abraham. These propositions have a subject, but it is not a person. These are improper impersonal verbs. Here belong (1.) me seemeth or me seems, past meseemed; (2.) me thinketh or me thinks, hym thinketh, past methought, it seems to me (think, to seem, is a different word from think, to imMention examples of the different classes of impersonal verbs.

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agine); (3.) me listeth or me lists, past me listed, him list, it pleases me. In (1.) and (2.) me is governed by to understood, in (3.) by list.

IV. Where the logical subject is indefinite, or refers to no particular person; as, they say, that is, it is said, or somebody says. These have no claim to be regarded as impersonal verbs.

DEFECTIVE VERBS.

§ 288. A DEFECTIVE VERB is one which wants some of the principal parts, as in the following list:

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COULD is irregular, for the l is not a part of the original word. Anglo-Saxon, Present, Ic can; Preterit, Ic cuthe; Past participle, Cuth. The is accounted for by a process of imitation. In would and should 7 has a proper place. It is a part of the original words will and shall. A false analogy looked upon could in the same light. As the l is not pronounced, it is an irregularity, not of language, but of orthography. MAY, SHALL, WILL. See § 271.

MUST is never varied in termination.

OUGHT is varied in the second person singular; thou oughtest.
BEWARE is used only in the imperative and infinitive modes.

QUOTH is used chiefly in the first and third persons singular of the present and preterit tenses. It has the peculiarity of preceding its pronoun. Instead of saying I quoth, he quoth, we say quoth I, quoth he. In the Anglo-Saxon it was not defective. It was found in the other tenses. Present, Ic cwethe, thú cwyst, he cwyth; Preterit, Cwath. In the Scandinavian it is current in all its forms. There, however, it means, not to speak, but to sing. It belonged to the strong conjugation, and formed its preterit by a change of vowel.

WIS is obsolete; WIST is not much used. It is, in its present form, a regular preterit from wis know.

WIT, Anglo-Saxon witan, to know, is confined to the phrase in the infinitive, to wit=namely, Latin videlicet. Wit appears to be the root; wot, a strong preterit.

HARK is used only in the imperative mode.

AM, BE, WAS, are strictly defective verbs, though usually classed as irregular; just as good, better, best, furnish instances of defectiveness in comparison, though commonly considered as furnishing an instance of irregular comparison.

Do. In the phrase this will do

What are defective verbs?

this will answer the purpose, the

Mention the defective verbs.

word do is wholly different from the word do, meaning to act. Of the first, the Anglo-Saxon inflection is deáh, dugon, dohte; of the second, it is dó, dóth, dyde.-LATHAM, p. 332.

Yode, the obsolete preterit of go, now replaced by went, the preterit of wend. The initial g has become y.

CHAPTER VII.

ADVERBS.

§ 289. AN ADVERB is a word which qualifies a verb, or adjective, or another adverb; as, "John struck Thomas rashly," "the sun shines brightly;" "he is more prudent than his neighbor;" "he is running very rapidly."

Or an ADVERB is a word which can not by itself form a constituent part of a simple proposition, but which can, in a complex proposition, combine with verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, to modify their meaning; as, "He reads correctly;" "he was exceedingly careful;" "he does tolerably well." See § 175.

The adverb belongs to the class of indeclinable words called Particles. To this class also belong prepositions, conjunctions, interjections, and inseparable prefixes. But adverbs susceptible of comparison are not properly particles. Though particles now appear only as helps to the principal words, the verb, the adjective, the substantive, and the pronoun, they were themselves originally nouns or verbs, pronouns or adjectives. Though acting a subordinate part in sentences, they still have a meaning. In their humble position among the principal words, they often seem to express an idea or an assertion within the idea or assertion expressed by those words. The same particle is sometimes, in different connections, an adverb, a conjunction, or a preposition. It should be added that most adverbs are relational words.

"The adverb is added to a perfect sentence, converting it, if categorical, from a pure into a modal one; and by a perfect sentence I here mean one that either enunciates some truth, or expresses some passion with its object. Thus, even fly,' in the imperative mode, is a perfect sentence, for it implies an agent and an act. 'Fly quickly.' Here a perfect sentence is converted into a modal one by the addition of the adverb. A part of a perfect sentence is understood when the mind supplies what is necessary to complete the sentence, as in the lines of Sir WALTER SCOTT:

"On, Stanley! on!

Were the last words of Marmion.'

Here the adverb on manifestly refers to some verb understood, as 'march,' 'rush.'"-Sir JOHN STODDART on the Philosophy of Language, p. 222.

Give the definition of the adverb, and origin of the term. To what class of words does the adverb belong, and what are the several members of this class?

ORIGIN OF ADVERBS.

§ 290. "Every part of speech is capable of becoming an adverb." Thus the words much and very, scarce and stark, originally adjectives, become adverbs.

The words adrift and atwist are adverbs derived from the participles of the verbs drifan, twisan.

The words here, there, hence, whence, are adverbs derived from pro

nouns.

The words once, twice, thrice, are adverbs derived from numerals. The words while, to-morrow, yesterday, originally substantives, are used as adverbs.

1. ADVERBS ENDING IN "LY."-Ly, Anglo-Saxon lic-like. Godly is equivalent to God-like. According to the present habit of the English language, an adjective is converted into an adverb by annexing ly; as, bright, brightly.

2. ADVERBS WITH THE PREFIX "A."-1. In some instances a stands in the place of the prepositions in or on; as, alive, anciently written on lyve, i. e., in life, or in a living state. Aloud was anciently written on loud; as, "On loud he speired what art thou?" 2. It was formerly expressed by the preposition of; as, anew, anciently written of new, as we now say of late. 3. It is the article a; as, awhile, i. e., a time. 4. It is part of the pronominal adjective all; as, alone, anciently written all one, i. e., absolutely one. 5. It is corrupted from the participial prefix ge or ye; as, adrift. The prefix a belongs to many sea terms; as, aboard, ashore, &c., and to many other ancient and modern words; afire in fire, on fire; ablaze=on blaze; asleep in sleep.

he.

ADVERBIAL PRONOUNS.

§ 291. Here, hence, hither, are in their origin related to the pronoun There, thence, and thither are in their origin related to the or that, as are where, whence, whither, to who or what. Then, when, are also related to that and what. Why is related to who, as also is how. Than and thus are severally related to that and this. The words here, there, where, united with other words, form a variety of compound adverbs; as, Hereafter, hereabout, hereat, hereby, herein, hereinto, hereof, hereon, hereupon, hereto, hereunto, heretofore, herewith, thereof, whereupon, &c.

The following distinction should be noticed concerning interrogatives. If you ask who, which, what, how many, you inquire concerning some noun; but if you ask where, whence, whither, when, how often, you inquire concerning some verb. Hence the propriety of calling the class which relates to nouns Pronouns, and the class that relates to verbs Adverbs.

What is the origin of adverbs? Give an instance of an adverb derived from an adjective; and of one derived from a participle; and of one derived from a pronoun; and of one derived from a numeral; of one derived from a substantive. What is said of adverbs ending in ly, and also of adverbs ending in a? Mention some of the adverbial pronouns. When you use the interrogatives who, which, &c., what part of speech do you inquire about? and when you use the interrogatives when, whence, &c., what part of speech do you inquire about? What inference do you draw in respect to the names given to these interrogatives?

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