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moon and the stars shine"= the moon shines and the stars shine; "He will be there as well as you;" "John will arrive, also James;" "She was not only beautiful, but modest."

II. An ADVERSATIVE CO-ORDINATE SENTENCE is one in which the clauses that are contrasted with each other are united to form one thought. The opposition or contrast is of such a nature that the thought in the co-ordinate clause either merely limits or restrains the thought of the preceding clause, or wholly denies it; as, "He is indeed poor, but brave;" "He is not guilty, but innocent;" "I did indeed welcome him to my house, but I found that he was a rascal;” “Though He slay me, yet will I trust in Him."

III. A DISJUNCTIVE CO-ORDINATE SENTENCE is one in which the two clauses composing the entire sentence are united in one whole, but one of which excludes the other; as, "The father or the son died;” “Either James or John will be there;" "He was neither pious nor prudent;" "Be industrious, otherwise you will come to want;" "Hasten to reform, else you will be ruined;""Thomas is wiser than John;" "John is as learned as James."

IV. CAUSAL CO-ORDINATE SENTENCES.-Two sentences may be so arranged that the latter may denote a cause or reason on the one hand, or an effort or inference on the other; as, "The mercury has sunk, because (cause) the weather is cold;""The weather is cold, for (reason) the mercury has sunk;" "The land is fertile, therefore (effect) the crops are good;" "The crops are good, therefore (inference) the land is fertile," "Wine makes him ill, on that account he drinks water;" "He intends to teach, therefore he learns French."

SUBORDINATE SENTENCES.

§ 411. Subordinate Sentences stand in the place of a Substantive, or of an Adjective, or of an Adverb, and therefore must be regarded as Substantives, or Adjectives, or Adverbs, expanded into a sentence. Accordingly, there are three classes of Subordinate sentences, viz., Substantive sentences, Adjective sentences, and Adverbial sentences.

I. SUBSTANTIVE SENTENCES are Substantives or Infinitives expanded into a sentence, and, like substantives, constitute the Subject, the Attribute, or the Object of a sentence. "He reported the death of the king," when expanded="He reported that the king had died."

1. A Substantive Sentence can be used as the subject of a proposition; as, "That the crops will be large is evident."

2. A Substantive Sentence can be used as the predicate of a proposition; as, "His complaint was, that you deceived him.”

3. A Substantive Sentence can be used as the object of a verb; as, "He believes that you injured him."

4. A Substantive Sentence can stand in apposition to a substantive in the principal sentence, whether in the nominative or objective case; as, "It is strange that you should think so." Here the sentence that you think so is in apposition to it, i. e., this thing.

5. The word that, used in these four instances, also serves to connect subordinate sentences which express a purpose; as, 66 I have come that I may see it with my own eyes ;" and also sentences that express an effect or consequence; as, "The noise was such that I could not hear a word.”

II. ADJECTIVE SENTENCES are Adjectives or Participles expanded into a sentence, and, like adjectives, they express a more exact definition of a Substantive or substantive Pronoun. They are usually introduced by relative pronouns; as, "A person who is ignorant of his own language=[a person ignorant of his own language] ought not to attempt to teach it;""The trees which I planted=[the trees planted by me] are flourishing." The adjective ignorant may be regarded as expanded into who is ignorant. Adjective sentences are called COMPLEX.

III. ADVERBIAL SENTENCES are Adverbs, Participles, or Substantives used adverbially, expanded into sentences, and, like adverbs, denote an adverbial object, i. e., such an object as does not complete the idea of the predicate, but merely defines it. Hence they express a more full explanation of the Place, Time, Reason, Manner.

1. Relation of Place; as, "He is not there, where you expected to meet him;" "Whithersoever I go, I will remember you;" "I know not whence he came."

2. Relation of Time; as, "When any body asked him, he would not give an answer;" "While he was traveling, he received the intelligence." 3. Relation of Cause or Reason; as, "He is not liked, because he is presumptuous; ;" "The gentleman being introduced to me, I addressed him in English ;"" He stays at home, as he expects a visit."

4. Conditional adverbial sentences are such as express a condition, and are introduced by the hypothetical conjunction if, or some equivalent; as, "I shall continue the work if I can." "Prove that to me, and I shall be satisfied." Here "prove that to me" is equivalent to "if you will prove that to me." The conditional clause is sometimes expressed by a question; as, "Is any man pinched with want, charity shall relieve him."

As the conditioning clause usually precedes the conditioned, the former (the subordinate clause) is called the PROTASIS, Condition, and the latter (the principal clause) is called the APODOSIS, Conclusion. "If he visit Washington (Protasis) he will see the President" (Apodosis).

5. Relation of Manner; as, "He did that just as it ought to be done" =just right.

SPECIMENS OF SENTENCES.

SIMPLE SENTENCES.

1. Reason guides. Here we have a simple subject and a simple predicate.

2. Reason cultivated guides. Here we have a modified subject.

3. Reason cultivated with care guides. Here there is a further mod-. ification.

4. Reason cultivated with great care guides.

5. Reason cultivated with great care, for many years, guides.

6. Reason cultivated with great care, for many years, in the best circumstances, guides.

7. Reason guides man. Here the predicate is modified.

8. Reason guides man in his path. Here is further modification 9. Reason guides man in his path through life.

10. Reason guides man in his path through life in all his doubts and difficulties.

These sentences are Declarative and Direct,

11. Does reason guide man? This is Interrogative and Indirect. 12. How admirable is reason as a guide compared with instinct! This is Exclamatory and Indirect.

13. Let reason guide you. This is Imperative and Indirect.

In a direct sentence, the subject comes before the verb; in an indirect sentence, the subject comes after the verb.

14. What is the use of it? is the first question asked in England by almost every body about almost every thing. This is a simple sentence, in which the question is the subject, which is itself a sentence.

COMPOUND SENTENCES.

1. Man proposes and God disposes. This is a Copulative Co-ordi

nate sentence.

2. Charity begins at home, but it should not stay there. This is an Adversative Co-ordinate sentence.

3. He neither was brave nor was he generous. This is a Disjunctive Co-ordinate sentence.

4. He was always punctual in his payments, and therefore he was in good credit. This is a Causal Co-ordinate sentence.

See § 410. In those compound sentences which are sometimes called complex, there is always a subordinate sentence. See § 411.

5. It is a law of nature that water should congeal by cold. The second sentence is a Substantive sentence. See § 411.

6. The man-who is prudent-looks to the future. The sentence who is prudent is an Adjective sentence. See § 411.

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7. When he has finished his lesson-he goes out to play. The first is an Adverbial sentence relating to time. See § 411.

8. I can not tell-where they have laid him. The last is an Adverbial sentence relating to place. See § 411.

9. He succeeds-as his father did before him. The last is an Adverbial sentence relating to manner.

10. The stars appear small-because they are distant from us. The last is an Adverbial sentence relating to manner.

11. They remained where they have been residing the last five years. This contains an Adverbial sentence.

12. Political economists tell us that self-love is the bond of society. This contains a Substantive sentence.

13.

Oh! for a muse of fire that would ascend
The highest heaven of invention!

This is an Exclamatory sentence.

GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENTS.

§ 412. A GRAMMATICAL FORM is equivalent to another grammatical form when the first means the same, or nearly the same, as the second.

What is called a command of language is little else than a practical acquaintance with grammatical equivalents. The tasteful English scholar is he who habitually uses the better expression of two equivalents

upon perceived grounds of preference. He understands both the points of agreement and the points of difference between two expressions.

EXAMPLES OF GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENTS.

§ 413. 1. He reported the death of the king-He reported that the king was dead. Here a substantive is expanded into a sentence.

2. The scholars who were educated by him=The scholars educated by him. Here a proposition is abridged into an adjective.

3. I saw him before the time when you came=I saw him before you came. Here a preposition, an article, a noun, and an adverb, are abridged into an adverb.

4. When the troops had come over the river, they marched directly into the fort=Having come over the river, the troops marched directly into the fort. Here a sentence is abridged into a participle.

5. He told the troops that they must not fire upon the enemy-He told the troops not to fire upon the enemy. Here a sentence is abridged into an infinitive.

6. He is a man of learning=He is a learned man-He is not unlearned.

7. Riding on horseback is healthful To ride on horseback is healthful Horseback riding is healthful.

8. When the troops approached, they discharged their muskets=The troops approached and discharged their muskets. Here the subordinate construction is changed to the co-ordinate.

9. He gave up the undertaking=He relinquished the undertaking. 10. Having conquered his enemies, he applied himself to the arts of peace After conquering his enemies, he applied himself to the arts of peace. These are specimens.

EXERCISES.

§ 414. Find equivalents for the following:

1. He examined me closer than my judge had done= 2. Were I to express my opinion fully=

3. Henry declared that it was John=

4. A gentleman who was coming here yesterday= 5. He arrived in the city and waited on the mayor=

TRANSLATION.

§ 415. Equivalents are very numerous in the English language. The learner will find it greatly for his advantage to write out phrases and sentences from books, and then write opposite to them, as above, equivalent expressions. Indeed, passages of considerable length might thus be profitably translated from one set of expressions to another, as in the following, from ISAAC TAYLOR, on Home Education :

"It was a brilliant night. Beneath a dark and cloudless vault, the snowy mantle of the mountain shone resplendent with the beams of a full Italian moon. The guides

"The night was resplendent. The mountain, clad in spotless white, glistened against the deep blue of the sky in the light of the moon, then at the full, and such

lay buried in the deepest sleep. Thus, in the midnight hour, at the height of ten thousand feet, I stood alone, my resting-place a pinnacle of rock that towered darkly above the frozen wilderness from which it isolated rose. Below me the yawning cliffs and uproarious desolation of the glacier presented an appalling picture of dangers scarcely gone by. Around and above was a sea of fair, treacherous snow, whose hidden perils yet lay before

us.

as it is seen in Italy. The guides were in the profoundest slumber; and I stood solitary, at an elevation of ten thousand feet, keeping the midnight watch, on a rocky turret, rearing itself gloomily out of the icy desert around. Beneath my feet lay the gaping chasms and wild solitudes of the glacier, reminding me of the frightful perils we had just escaped. On all sides, and about the upper path we had yet to tread, was outspread a fallacious expanse of snow."

Translate the following Old English, written in the fourteenth century, into modern English:

6

"Then thus in getting riches ye musten flee idleness; and afterward ye shulen usen the riches which ye have geten by your wit and by your travail in such manner that men hold you not too scarce, ne too sparing, ne fool-large, that is to say, over large spender; for right as men blamen an averitious man on account of his scarcity, in the same wise he is to blame that spendeth over largely; and therefore,' saith Caton, 'use' (he saith) 'the riches that thou has ygeten in such manner that men have no matter ne cause to call thee nother wretch; for it is a great shame to a man to hav a poor heart and a rich purse.' He saith also, "The goods that thou hast ygeten, use them by measure, that is to sayen, spend measureably; for they that solely wasten and despenden the goods that they hav, when they have no more proper of 'eir own, that they shapen 'em to take the goods of another man.'"-CHAUCER. Translate the following poetry, written in the fifteenth century, into modern prose:

"In going to my naked bed, as one that would have slept,

I heard a wife sing to her child that long before had wept;
She sighed sore, and sang full sweet to bring the babe to rest
That would not cease, but cried still in sucking at her breast.
She was full weary of her watch, and grieved with her child;
She rocked it and rated it until on her it smiled;

Then did she say, Now have I found the present true to prove,
The falling out of faithful friends renewing is of love."-R. EDWARDS.

CHAPTER XI.

RULES FOR THE CHOICE OF WORDS AND GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTIONS.

§ 416. USAGE gives the law to language; usage,

Quem penes arbitrium est et jus et norma loquendi. But we are met by the inquiry, What kind of usage?

RULE I.—It must be REPUTABLE usage. Here we are met by the inquiry, What is reputable usage? To this it may be safely answered, it is such usage as is found in the works of those who are regarded by the public as reputable authors.

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