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which really constitutes the noun, whether at the end or not; as, Mantraps, courts-martial, fathers-in-law," cousins german, outgoings, queen consorts, Te Deums. "In forming the possessive case, the rule is different, the sign of the possessive being uniformly suffixed to the compound expression; thus, father-in-law, plural fathers-in-law, possessive father-inlaw's."-HART's Grammar, p. 42.

Compounds united without a hyphen follow the general rule; as, spoonfuls, overflowings.

VIII. Proper nouns, when used in the plural number, follow the rule, for the most part, of common nouns; as, Canada, the Canadas; Carson, the Carsons; Rogers, the Rogerses; Alleghany, the Alleghanies; India changes the vowel, Indies.

IX. Words used as mere words follow the general rule; as, The ins and the outs; the yeas and the nays.

X. When a TITLE AND A NAME ARE USED TOGETHER, some grammarians recommend that the title only have the plural form; as, the Misses Lyman; others, that both have the plural form; as, the Misses Lymans; and others, that the name only have the plural form; as the Miss Lymans. The last is the correct form if the two words are viewed as a compound term; the first, if they are viewed as in apposition; the second, if they are viewed as if in classical languages. The last, namely, the MISS LYMANS, is sanctioned by high authority. Use is divided.

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COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOGY.

§ 188. Some ancient languages, as the Anglo-Saxon, the MœsoGothic, and the Greek and Hebrew, the old and the present Icelandic, in addition to the singular and the plural, had the Dual, which denotes two objects, or a pair. The English has no dual. Dual is from the Latin word duo two. Thus, in the Anglo-Saxon, thu, the singular= thou; git, the dual-ye two; ge, the plural-ye. We have the remains of ancient number in the examples given: of the Hebrew, as in cherubim; of the Greek, as in phenomena; of the Latin, as in larvæ; of the Anglo-Saxon, as in oxen. We have also borrowed certain forms of number from modern languages. See Examples above.

CASES OF NOUNS.

§ 189. CASE denotes the relation which a noun sustains to other words in the sentence, expressed sometimes by its termination and sometimes by its position. Nouns have three cases, the Nominative, the Possessive or Genitive, and the Objective or Accusative.

The NOMINATIVE CASE is the noun in its simple form, and denotes the relation of the subject to the finite verb; as, "Man speaks;" "John is loved."

Give the statement with respect to words used as mere words, and with respect to a title and a name used together. What languages had the dual number? Give the definition of each of the three cases.

The POSSESSIVE or GENITIVE CASE denotes the relation of possession or origin, and is formed by adding to the simple form the letter s, with an apostrophe before it; as, "Man's virtue;" "Milton's poems."

The OBJECTIVE or ACCUSATIVE ČASE is the noun in its simple form, and denotes the relation of the object to the verb, or the complement of a preposition; as, "He struck the soldier;""he lives in Boston." To these cases might be added the Dative and the Vocative. See § 193.

CASE is from the Latin word casus, a falling or declension.

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§ 191. I. Generally, when the singular ends in s, or in letters of a similar sound, and the next word begins. with s, or when there is an s also in the penult, the apostrophic s is omitted, but the apostrophe is added; as, For righteousness' sake; for conscience' sake; Moses' disciples; Peleus' son. See § 357.

Give the origin of the term case. the rules for the possessive form.

Give the declension of English nouns, and give

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II. When the letter s, added as the sign of the possessive, will coalesce with the the terminating sound of the noun, it is pronounced in the same syllable, as John's; but if it will not coalesce, it adds another syllable to the word, as in the example above, Charles's, pronounced as if written Charlesis.

III. When the nominative plural ends in 8, the possessive plural is formed by adding only an apostrophe ; when it does not end in s, the possessive plural is formed by adding both the apostrophe and the s. See examples of declension.

TRANSITION FROM THE ANGLO-SAXON GENITIVE.

§ 192. In the Anglo-Saxon, the Genitive termination of many nouns in the singular number was es, is, or ys; as, Godes, leafes, mirthis, mannys; hence the present possessive ('s=es=is.) See English Grammar, § 260.

THE NUMBER OF CASES.

§ 193. It has been a question how many cases should be admitted in the English language. If a change of termination is essential to constitute a case, there are but two cases, the nominative and the possessive; as John, John's.

Both in the Latin and the Anglo-Saxon, different cases are attributed to nouns when the terminations are the same. In practical grammar, we are therefore justified, on the ground of convenience, in admitting at least three cases, though there are but two terminations in nouns, especially as we must have three terminational cases in some of the pronouns. See § 224.

On the other hand, the objective case and the preposition to are often equivalent to the dative case in other languages. It might be a matter of convenience to add the dative and vocative to the number of English cases.

The following has been proposed: "Nom., A man; Gen., A man's; Dat., A man; Accus., A man; Voc., man! A MAN (N.) may beat ANOTHER MAN (A.) if he can, but it is A MAN'S (G.) part to give HIM, i.e., A man (D.), fair play. MAN! (V.) hold your hand. Here we have the agent, or nominative, that beats; the patient, or accusative, that is beaten; the person standing in the relation of possession, or genitive; and of giving, or dative; finally, in that of being addressed by another, or vocative." See English Grammar, § 261.

IMPORT OF THE GENITIVE.

§ 194. The import of the genitive case may often be expressed by the Describe the transition from the Anglo-Saxon genitive. Give the statement with respect to the number of cases. What is said of the import of the genitive?

particle of. Thus, for man's wisdom we can say the wisdom of man. But, though the import of the analytical genitive (that expressed by of) is often much the same as that of the Saxon genitive (that expressed by 's), it is often different. The Paradise Lost of Milton is not in import exactly the same as Milton's Paradise Lost. In the former, attention is called to the author; in the latter, to the work. See CROMBIE'S Etymology and Syntax.

COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOGY.

§ 195. The cases in the ancient languages were formed by varying the terminations, and thus expressing a few of the obvious and common relations. In the Latin language nouns have six cases; in the AngloSaxon, four.

The Anglo-Saxon word ende is declined as follows:

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§ 196. The earlier we can trace back any one language, the more numerous are its forms for the cases.

CHAPTER III.

THE ADJECTIVE.

§ 197. AN ADJECTIVE is a word which qualifies or limits a noun; as, A wise man; virtuous women; seven children.

Or an ADJECTIVE is a word which can not, by itself, form the subject of a proposition, but which, with the verb to be, can form the predicate of a proposition; as, "God is good;" "Man is mortal."

Adjectives, from the Latin word adjectivus (added to), have been called Attributives, because they denote qualities attributed to things. It is sometimes called a noun adjective, because it is the name of a quality. Like the substantive, it is, according to the classification of Becker, a notional word.

How were cases in the ancient languages formed? What is the difference between ancient and modern languages in respect to their forms? Give the definition of an adjective, and the derivation of the term. What does it denote, and why is it called a noun adjective?

CLASSIFICATION.

§ 198. I. A PROPER ADJECTIVE is one that is derived from a proper name; as, Roman, from Rome; English, from England.

II. A COMMON ADJECTIVE is one that is not derived from a proper name, and expresses quality; as, Useful, industrious, frugal.

III. A NUMERAL ADJECTIVE is one that expresses a definite number. There are three kinds of numeral adjectives, namely, Cardinal; as, One, two, three; Ordinal; as, First, second, third; Multiplicative; as, Single, double or two-fold, triple or three-fold. See § 211.

IV. A PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVE is one that partakes of the nature of a pronoun and an adjective, being sometimes used as the one, and sometimes as the other. The following have been called pronominal adjectives: This, that, these, those; each, every, either; much, many, few, several; all, none, any, one, other, another, such, some, both; certain, divers, else; former, latter, first, last; neither, own, same, what, whatever, whatsoever, which, whichever, whichsoever, &c. These words are often classed with pronouns.

merals. See § 242.

Some of these are properly nu

V. A PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVE is one that has the form of a participle without the idea of time; as, "A pleasing person;"" an amusing story.'

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VI. A COMPOUND ADJECTIVE is one that is made up of two or more words, usually joined by a hyphen; as, "Sun-burnt hair;" "love-lorn nightingale."

OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS.

§ 199. Adjectives have also been divided into,

I. DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES, which express some quality or condition of the noun; as, "A good man ;" .99 66 an open book."

II. DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES, which define or limit the meaning of the noun to which they are applied; as, "Several men ;" "those books."

Mention the several classes of adjectives. What is a proper adjective, and what is a common adjective? What is a numeral adjective, and what is a pronominal adjective? What is a participial adjective, and what a compound adjective? Mention other classifications, with examples.

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