Solomon, the German, wrote a most elegant dic- commentaries, and compilations, and to evaporate tionary of the Latin tongue, still preserved in the in a folio the spirit that could scarcely have sufficed university of Louvain; Pantaleon, in the lives of for an epigram. The most barbarous times had his illustrious countrymen, speaks of it in the warm- men of learning, if commentators, compilers, poest strains of rapture. Dictionary writing was at lemic divines, and intricate metaphysicians, dethat time much in fashion. served the title.

I have mentioned but a very inconsiderable number of the writers in this age of obscurity. The

Constantine Porphyrogenta was a man universally skilled in the sciences. His tracts on the administration of an empire, on tactics, and on laws, multiplicity of their publications will at least equal were published some years since at Leyden. His court, for he was emperor of the East, was resorted to by the learned from all parts of the world.

those of any similar period of the most polite antiquity. As, therefore, the writers of those times are almost entirely forgotten, we may infer, that the Luitprandus was a most voluminous historian, number of publications alone will never secure any and particularly famous for the history of his own age whatsoever from oblivion. Nor can printing, times. The compliments paid him as a writer are contrary to what Mr. Baumelle has remarked, presaid to exceed even his own voluminous produc- vent literary decline for the future, since it only intions. I can not pass over one of a later date made creases the number of books, without advancing him by a German divine. Luitprandus nunquam their intrinsic merit. Luitprando dissimilis.

Alfric composed several grammars and dictionaries still preserved among the curious.

Pope Sylvester the Second wrote a treatise on the sphere, on arithmetic and geometry, published some years since at Paris.

CHAPTER IV.

Of the Present State of Polite Learning in Italy.

Michael Psellus lived in this age, whose books FROM ancient we are now come to modern times, in the sciences, I will not scruple to assert, contain and, in running over Europe, we shall find, that more learning than those of any one of the earlier wherever learning has been cultivated, it has flourages. His erudition was indeed amazing; and he ished by the same advantages as in Greece and was as voluminous as he was learned. The cha-Rome; and that, wherever it has declined, it sinks racter given him by Allatius has, perhaps, more by the same causes of decay. truth in it than will be granted by those who have Dante, the poet of Italy, who wrote in the thirseen none of his productions. There was, says he, teenth century, was the first who attempted to bring no science with which he was unacquainted, none learning from the cloister into the community, and which he did not write something upon, and none paint human nature in a language adapted to mowhich he did not leave better than he found it. To dern manners. He addressed a barbarous people mention his works would be endless. His com- in a method suited to their apprehensions; united mentaries on Aristotle alone amount to three folios. purgatory and the river Styx, St. Peter and Virgil, Bertholdus Teutonicus, a very voluminous his- Heaven and Hell together, and shows a strange torian, was a politician, and wrote against the gov-mixture of good sense and absurdity. The truth ernment under which he lived: but most of his is, he owes most of his reputation to the obscurity writings, though not all, are lost. of the times in which he lived. As in the land of Benin a man may pass for a prodigy of parts who can read, so in an age of barbarity, a small degree of excellence ensures success. But it was great merit in him to have lifted up the standard of nature, in spite of all the opposition and the persecution he received from contemporary criticism. this standard every succeeding genius resorted; the germ of every art and science began to unfold; and to imitate nature was found to be the surest way of imitating antiquity. In a century or two after, modern Italy might justly boast of rivalling ancient Rome; equal in some branches of polite learning, and not far surpassed in others.

Constantius Afer was a philosopher and physician. We have remaining but two volumes folio of his philological performances. However, the historian who prefixes the life of the author to his works, says, that he wrote many more, as he kept on writing during the course of a long life.

Lambertus published a universal history about this time, which has been printed at Frankfort in folio. An universal history in one folio! If he had consulted with his bookseller, he would have spun it out to ten at least; but Lambertus might have had too much modesty.

To

By this time the reader perceives the spirit of learning which at that time prevailed. The igno- They soon, however, fell from emulating the rance of the age was not owing to a dislike of know-wonders of antiquity into simple admiration. As ledge but a false standard of taste was erected, and if the word had been given when Vida and Tasso a wrong direction given to philosophical inquiry. wrote on the arts of poetry, the whole swarm of It was the fashion of the day to write dictionaries, critics was up. The Speronis of the age attempt

ed to be awkwardly merry; and the Virtuosi and| The Filosofi are entirely different from the forthe Nascotti sat upon the merits of every contem- mer. As those pretend to have got their knowporary performance. After the age of Clement VII. ledge from conversing with the living and polite, so the Italians seemed to think that there was more these boast of having theirs from books and study. merit in praising or censuring well, than in writing Bred up all their lives in colleges, they have there well; almost every subsequent performance since learned to think in track, servilely to follow the their time, being designed rather to show the ex- leader of their sect, and only to adopt such opinions cellence of the critic's taste than his genius. One as their universities, or the inquisition, are pleased or two poets, indeed, seem at present born to re- to allow. By these means, they are behind the rest deem the honour of their country. Metastasio has of Europe in several modern improvements; afraid restored nature in all her simplicity, and Maffei is to think for themselves; and their universities selthe first that has introduced a tragedy among his dom admit opinions as true, till universally received countrymen without a love-plot. Perhaps the Sam- among the rest of mankind. In short, were I to son of Milton, and the Athalia of Racine, might personize my ideas of learning in this country, I have been his guides in such an attempt. But two would represent it in the tawdry habits of the stage, poets in an age are not suffered to revive the splen- or else in the more homely guise of bearded schooldour of decaying genius; nor should we consider philosophy.

them as the standard by which to characterize a nation. Our measures of literary reputation must be taken rather from that numerous class of men, who, placed above the vulgar, are yet beneath the great, and who confer fame on others without receiving any portion of it themselves.

CHAPTER V

Of Polite Learning in Germany.

In Italy, then, we shall no where find a stronger If we examine the state of learning in Germany, passion for the arts of taste, yet no country making we shall find that the Germans early discovered a more feeble efforts to promote either. The Vir-passion for polite literature; but unhappily, like contuosi and Filosofi seem to have divided the Ency-querors, who, invading the dominions of others, clopedia between each other. Both inviolably at- leave their own to desolation, instead of studying tached to their respective pursuits; and, from an the German tongue, they continue to write in Latin. opposition of character, each holding the other in Thus, while they cultivated an obsolete language, the most sovereign contempt. The Virtuosi, pro-and vainly laboured to apply it to modern manners, fessed critics of beauty in the works of art, judge they neglected their own. of medals by the smell, and pictures by feeling; in statuary, hang over a fragment with the most ardent gaze of admiration : though wanting the head and the other extremities, if dug from a ruin, the Torse becomes inestimable. An unintelligible monument of Etruscan barbarity can not be sufficiently prized; and any thing from Herculaneum excites rapture. When the intellectual taste is thus decayed, its relishes become false, and, like that of sense, nothing will satisfy but what is best suited to feed the disease.

At the same time also, they began at the wrong end, I mean by being commentators; and though they have given many instances of their industry, they have scarcely afforded any of genius. If criticism could have improved the taste of a people, the Germans would have been the most polite na tion alive. We shall no where behold the learned wear a more important appearance than here; no where more dignified with professorships, or dressed out in the fopperies of scholastic finery. However, they seem to earn all the honours of this kind Poetry is no longer among them an imitation of which they enjoy. Their assiduity is unparalwhat we see, but of what a visionary might wish. leled; and did they employ half those hours on The zephyr breathes the most exquisite perfume, study which they bestow on reading, we might the trees wear eternal verdure; fawns, and dryads, be induced to pity as well as praise their painful and hamadryads, stand ready to fan the sultry pre-eminence. But guilty of a fault too common shepherdess, who has forgot indeed the pretti- to great readers, they write through volumes, while nesses with which Guarini's shepherdesses have they do not think through a page. Never fatigued been reproached, but is so simple and innocent as themselves, they think the reader can never be often to have no meaning. Happy country, where weary; so they drone on, saying all that can be said the pastoral age begins to revive! where the wits on the subject, not selecting what may be advanceven of Rome, are united into a rural group of ed to the purpose. Were angels to write books, nymphs and swains, under the appellation of mo- they never would write folios. dern Arcadians: where in the midst of porticos, But let the Germans have their due; if they are processions, and cavalcades, abbés turned shep- dull, no nation alive assumes a more laudable soherds, and shepherdesses without sheep indulge lemnity, or better understands all the decorums of their innocent divertimenti. stupidity. Let the discourse of a professor run on

never so heavily, it can not be irksome to his dozing minated by no resulting phenomena. To make pupils, who frequently lend him sympathetic nods experiments, is, I own, the only way to promote of approbation. I have sometimes attended their natural knowledge; but to treasure up every unsuc disputes at gradation. On this occasion they often cessful inquiry into nature, or to communicate dispense with their gravity, and seem really all every experiment without conclusion, is not to proalive. The disputes are managed between the fol- mote science, but oppress it. Had the members lowers of Cartesius (whose exploded system they of these societies enlarged their plans, and taken continue to call the new philosophy) and those of in art as well as science, one part of knowledge Aristotle. Though both parties are in the wrong, would have repressed any faulty luxuriance in the they argue with an obstinacy worthy the cause of other, and all would have mutually assisted each truth; Nego, Probo, and Distinguo, grow loud; the other's promotion. Besides, the society which, disputants become warm, the moderator can not with a contempt of all collateral assistance, admits be heard, the audience take part in the debate, till of members skilled in one science only, whatever at last the whole hall buzzes with sophistry and their diligence or labour may be, will lose much time in the discovery of such truths as are well

"error.

There are, it is true, several societies in this known already to the learned in a different line; country, which are chiefly calculated to promote consequently, their progress must be slow in gainknowledge. His late majesty as elector of Hano-ing a proper eminence from which to view their ver, has established one at Gottingen, at an expense subject, and their strength will be exhausted in atof not less than a hundred thousand pounds. This taining the station whence they should have set out. university has already pickled monsters, and dis- With regard to the Royal Society of London, the sected live puppies without number. Their trans- greatest, and perhaps the oldest institution of the actions have been published in the learned world kind, had it widened the basis of its institution, at proper intervals since their institution; and will, though they might not have propagated more disit is hoped, one day give them just reputation. coveries, they would probably have delivered them But had the fourth part of the immense sum above in a more pleasing and compendious form. They mentioned been given in proper rewards to genius, would have been free from the contempt of the illin some neighbouring countries, it would have ren-natured, and the raillery of the wit, for which, even dered the name of the donor immortal, and added candour must allow, there is but too much foundato the real interests of society. tion. But the Berlin academy is subject to none of all these inconveniences, but every one of its indivi duals is in a capacity of deriving more from the common stock than he contributes to it, while each academician serves as a check upon the rest of his fellows.

Yet it ought to be observed, that, of late, learning has been patronized here by a prince, who, in the humblest station, would have been the first of mankind. The society established by the king of Prussia, at Berlin, is one of the finest literary institutions that any age or nation has produced. Yet, very probably, even this fine institution will This academy comprehends all the sciences under soon decay. As it rose, so it will decline with its four different classes; and although the object of great encourager. The society, if I may so speak, each is different, and admits of being separately is artificially supported. The introduction of fotreated, yet these classes mutually influence the reigners of learning was right; but in adopting a progress of each other, and concur in the same foreign language also, I mean the French, in which general design. Experimental philosophy, mathe-all the transactions are to be published, and quesmatics, metaphysics, and polite literature, are here [tions debated, in this there was an error. As I carried on together. The members are not col- have already hinted, the language of the natives of lected from among the students of some obscure every country should be also the language of its seminary, or the wits of a metropolis, but chosen polite learning. To figure in polite learning, every from all the literati of Europe, supported by the country should make their own language from their bounty, and ornamented by the productions of their own manners; nor will they ever succeed by introroyal founder. We can easily discern how much ducing that of another, which has been formed such an institution excels any other now subsisting. from manners which are different. Besides, an One fundamental error among societies of this kind, academy composed of foreigners must still be reis their addicting themselves to one branch of sci-cruited from abroad, unless all the natives of the ence, or some particular part of polite learning. country to which it belongs, are in a capacity of Thus, in Germany, there are no where so many becoming candidates for its honours or rewards. establishments of this nature; but as they generally While France therefore continues to supply Berlin, profess the promotion of natural or medical know- polite learning will flourish; but when royal favour ledge, he who reads their Acta will only find an is withdrawn, learning will return to its natural obscure farago of experiment, most frequently ter- country.

CHAPTER VI.

Of Polite Learning in Holland, and some other Countries of
Europe.

transient, acquire stability in proportion as they are connected with the laws of the country; and philosophy and law have no where been so closely united as here.

HOLLAND, at first view, appears to have some learning in its own language. Count Tessin's inSweden has of late made some attempts in polite pretensions to polite learning. It may be regarded structions to the prince, his pupil, are no bad beas the great emporium, not less of literature than of ginning. If the Muses can fix their residence so every other commodity. Here, though destitute far northward, perhaps no country bids so fair for of what may be properly called a language of their their reception. They have, I am told, a language own, all the languages are understood, cultivated, rude but energetic; if so, it will bear a polish. They and spoken. All useful inventions in arts, and have also a jealous sense of liberty, and that strength new discoveries in science, are published here almost of thinking peculiar to northern climates, without as soon as at the places which first produced them. its attendant ferocity. They will certainly in time Its individuals have the same faults, however, with produce somewhat great, if their intestine divisions the Germans, of making more use of their memory do not unhappily prevent them. than their judgment. The chief employment of their literati is to criticise, or answer, the new performances which appear elsewhere.

be comprised in the life of one single man: it rose The history of polite learning in Denmark may A dearth of wit in France or England naturally was, perhaps, one of the most extraordinary perand fell with the late famous Baron Holberg. This produces a scarcity in Holland. What Ovid says sonages that has done honour to the present cenof Echo, may be applied here, Nec loqui prius ipsa tury. His being the son of a private sentinel did didicit nec reticere loquenti. They wait till some- not abate the ardour of his ambition, for he learned thing new comes out from others; examine its merits, and reject it, or make it reverberate through the rest of Europe.

sev

to read though without a master. Upon the death of his father, being left entirely destitute, he was in After all, I know not whether they should be the poor, and of which the great have scarcely any volved in all that distress which is common among allowed any national character for polite learning. idea. However, though only a boy of nine All their taste is derived to them from neighbouring old, he still persisted in pursuing his studies, tranations, and that in a language not their own. velled about from school to school, and begged his years They somewhat resemble their brokers, who trade learning and his bread. When at the for immense sums without having any capital. age of enteen, instead of applying himself to any of the The other countries of Europe may be consider- lower occupations, which seem best adapted to such ed as immersed in ignorance, or making but feeble circumstances, he was resolved to travel for imefforts to rise. Spain has long fallen from amazing provement from Norway, the place of his birth, to Europe with her wit, to amusing them with the Copenhagen the capital city of Denmark. He greatness of her catholic credulity. Rome consi- lived there by teaching French, at the same time ders her as the most favourite of all her children, avoiding no opportunity of improvement that his and school divinity still reigns there in triumph. scanty funds could permit. But his ambition was In spite of all attempts of the Marquis D'Ensana- not to be restrained, or his thirst of knowledge sada, who saw with regret the barbarity of his coun- tisfied, until he had seen the world. Without motrymen, and bravely offered to oppose it by intro- ney, recommendations, or friends, he undertook to ducing new systems of learning, and suppressing set out upon his travels, and make the tour of Euthe seminaries of monastic ignorance; in spite of rope on foot. A good voice, and a trifling skill in the ingenuity of Padré Feio, whose book of vulgar music, were the only finances he had to support an errors so finely exposes the monkish stupidity of undertaking so extensive; so he travelled by day, the times, the religious have prevailed. Ensana- and at night sung at the door of peasants' houses da has been banished, and now lives in exile. Feio to get himself a lodging. In this manner, while has incurred the hatred and contempt of every bigot yet very young, Holberg passed through France, whose errors he has attempted to oppose, and feels Germany, and Holland; and coming over to Engno doubt the unremitting displeasure of the priest-land, took up his residence for two years in the hood. Persecution is a tribute the great must ever university of Oxford. Here he subsisted by teachpay for pre-eminence. ing French and music, and wrote his universal

It is a little extraordinary, however, how Spain, history, his earliest, but worst performance. Furwhose genius is naturally fine, should be so much nished with all the learning of Europe, he at last behind the rest of Europe in this particular; or thought proper to return to Copenhagen, where his why school divinity should hold its ground there ingenious productions quickly gained him that fafor nearly six hundred years. The reason must vour he deserved. He composed not less than eighbe that philosophical opinions, which are otherwise teen comedies. Those in his own language are

said to excel, and those which are translated into splendour. In other places learning has not yet French have peculiar merit. He was honoured been planted, or has suffered a total decay. To with nobility, and enriched by the bounty of the attempt amendment there, would be only like the king; so that a life begun in contempt and penury, application of remedies to an insensible or a mortiended in opulence and esteem.

fied part, but here there is still life, and there is Thus we see in what a low state polite learning hope. And indeed the French themselves are so is in the countries I have mentioned; either past far from giving into any despondence of this kind, its prime, or not yet arrived at maturity. And that on the contrary, they admire the progress they though the sketch I have drawn be general, yet it are daily making in every science. That levity, for was for the most part taken on the spot. I am sen- which we are apt to despise this nation, is probably sible, however, of the impropriety of national reflec- the principal source of their happiness. An agreetion; and did not truth bias me more than inclina- able oblivion of past pleasures, a freedom from solition in this particular, I should, instead of the account citude about future ones, and a poignant zest of already given, have presented the reader with a every present enjoyment, if they be not philosophy, panegyric on many of the individuals of every coun-are at least excellent substitutes. By this they are try, whose merits deserve the warmest strains of taught to regard the period in which they live with praise. Apostolo Zeno, Algarotti, Goldoni, Mu- admiration. The present manners, and the preratori, and Stay, in Italy; Haller, Klopstock, and sent conversation, surpass all that preceded. A Rabner, in Germany; Muschenbroek, and Gau- similar enthusiasm as strongly tinctures their learnbius, in Holland; all deserve the highest applause. ing and their taste. While we, with a despondence Men like these, united by one bond, pursuing one characteristic of our nature, are for removing back design, spend their labour and their lives in making British excellence to the reign of Queen Elizabeth, their fellow-creatures happy, and in repairing the our more happy rivals of the continent cry up the breaches caused by ambition. In this light, the writers of the present times with rapture, and remeanest philosopher, though all his possessions are gard the age of Louis XV. as the true Augustan his lamp or his cell, is more truly valuable than he age of France. whose name echoes to the shout of the million, and The truth is, their present writers have not fall who stands in all the glare of admiration. In this en so far short of the merits of their ancestors as light, though poverty and contemptuous neglect ours have done. That self-sufficiency now menare all the wages of his good-will from mankind, tioned, may have been of service to them in this paryet the rectitude of his intention is an ample re- ticular. By fancying themselves superior to their compense; and self-applause for the present, and ancestors, they have been encouraged to enter the the alluring prospect of fame for futurity, reward his labours. The perspective of life brightens upon us, when terminated by an object so charming. Every intermediate image of want, banishment, or sorrow, receives a lustre from its distant influence. Other causes also may be assigned, that their With this in view, the patriot, philosopher, and second growth of genius is still more vigorous than poet, have often looked with calmness on disgrace ours. Their encouragements to merit are more and famine, and rested on their straw with cheer- skilfully directed, the link of patronage and learnful serenity. Even the last terrors of departing ing still continues unbroken. The French nobility nature abate of their severity, and look kindly on have certainly a most pleasing way of satisfying the him who considers his sufferings as a passport to vanity of an author, without indulging his avarice. immortality, and lays his sorrows on the bed of A man of literary merit is sure of being caressed by fame. the great, though seldom enriched. His pension from the crown just supplies half a competence, and the sale of his labours makes some small addition to his circumstances. Thus the author leads a life of splendid poverty, and seldom becomes wealthy or indolent enough to discontinue an exertion of those abilities by which he rose. With We have hitherto seen, that wherever the poet the English it is different. Our writers of rising was permitted to begin by improving his native merit are generally neglected, while the few of an language, polite learning flourished; but where the established reputation are overpaid by luxurious afcritic undertook the same task, it has never risen fluence. The young encounter every hardship to any degree of perfection. Let us now examine which generally attends upon aspiring indigence; the merits of modern learning in France and Eng- the old enjoy the vulgar, and perhaps the more pruland; where, though it may be on the decline, yet dent, satisfaction, of putting riches in competition it is still capable of retrieving much of its former with fame. Those are often seen to spend their

CHAPTER VII.

Of Polite Learning in France.

lists with confidence; and by not being dazzled at the splendour of another's reputation, have sometimes had sagacity to mark out an unbeaten path to fame for themselves.