MODES OF THE VERB.

24. What does mode denote ?

25. What does the indicative mode denote? Give an example. What is it used for?

26. What does the subjunctive mode express? Give an example. What is it used for?

27. What does the potential mode express? Give an example. What is it used for?

28. What does the imperative mode express? Give an example. What is it used for?

29. What is the infinitive mode? Give an example. What is it used for? 30. Mention the characteristics of the modes.

31. What is said of the ancient inflection of the infinitive, and under what two forms do English infinitives exist?

32. What is said of the number of the modes?

33. What is a participle? How many participles are there? What are they called? What are their forms?

34. What is said of the present participle? What were the Anglo-Saxon forms? What other parts of speech may it become? What is the proposal of WHATELEY and KÜHNER in regard to its classification?

35. What is said of the past participle as to termination? Does the perfect participle ever lose its verbal character? What does it become? Give an instance. What is said of the prefix y?

CONJUGATION.

36. What is said of conjugation?

37. What is said of auxiliary verbs, and into what two classes are they divided?

38. What is said of the derivation of HAVE? of BE, AM, WAS? of SHALL? of WILL? of MAY? of CAN? of MUST? of LET? of DO?

39. What is said of the classification of auxiliary verbs in respect to their mode of construction?

40. Conjugate the auxiliary verbs may, can, shall, will, must, do, have. What are did, hast, hath, has, had, shalt, wilt, contractions of?

41. What is said of the substantive verb, and in what three ways is it used? What is said of worth and of some other verbs? Conjugate the verb to be. 42. What is said of the verbs of the ancient conjugation in respect to their past tense, and in respect to their passive participle? Conjugate the verb to take.

43. What is said of verbs of the weak conjugation in respect to their past tense, and in respect to their passive participle? Conjugate the verb to love. 44. What is the common definition of irregular verbs? Does this definition include the verbs of the ancient conjugation?

45. Mention the classes of the derived verbs, with examples. What are reflective verbs? Give examples of the different classes. Mention examples of the different classes of impersonal verbs. What are defective verbs? Mention some or all of the defective verbs.

CHAPTER VII.

ADVERBS.

§ 361. AN ADVERB is a word which can not by itself form a constituent part of a simple proposition, but which can, in a complex proposition, combine with verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, to modify their meaning; as, "He reads correctly;" "he was exceedingly careful;" "he does tolerably well." § 240.

Or, an Adverb is a word which qualifies a verb, or adjective, or another adverb; as, "John struck Thomas rashly," "the sun shines brightly;" "he is more prudent than his neighbor ;" "he is running very rapidly."

The name of this part of speech indicates its character. It was added to the verb (Latin adverbium) to modify its signification; hence the Greek writers defined it thus: Επίῤῥημά ἐστι μέρος λόγου ἄκλιτον, ἐπὶ τὸ ῥῆμα τὴν ἀναφορὰν ἔχον. “The adverb is an indeclinable part of speech, having relation to the verb."

The adverb belongs to the class of indeclinable words called Particles. To this class also belong prepositions, conjunctions, interjections, and inseparable prefixes. But adverbs susceptible of comparison are not properly particles. Though particles now appear only as helps to the principal words, the verb, the adjective, the substantive, and the pronoun, they were themselves originally nouns or verbs, pronouns or adjectives. Though acting a subordinate part in sentences, they still have a meaning. In their humble position among the principal words, they often seem to express an idea or an assertion within the idea or assertion expressed by those words. The same particle is sometimes, in different connections, an adverb, a conjunction, or a preposition. It should be added that most adverbs are relational words.

"The adverb is added to a perfect sentence, converting it, if categorical, from a pure into a modal one; and by a perfect sentence I here mean one that either enunciates some truth, or expresses some passion with its object. Thus, even 'fly,' in the imperative mode, is a perfect sentence, for it implies an agent and an act.

Fly

quickly.' Here a perfect sentence is converted into a modal one by the addition of the adverb. A part of a perfect sentence is understood when the mind supplies what is necessary to complete the sentence, as in the lines of Sir WALTER SCOTT:

"On, Stanley! on!

Were the.last words of Marmion.'

Here the adverb on manifestly refers to some verb understood, as 'march,' 'rush.'"-Sir JOHN STODDART on the Philosophy of Language, p. 222.

ORIGIN OF ADVERBS.

362. "Omnis pars orationis migrat in adverbium." part of speech is capable of becoming an adverb."

"Every

Thus the words much and very, scarce and stark, originally adjectives, become adverbs.

The words adrift and atwist are adverbs derived from the participles of the verbs drifan, twisan.

The words here, there, hence, whence, are adverbs derived from pronouns.

The words once, twice, thrice, are adverbs derived from numerals. The words yet, ado, together, are adverbs which seem to be derived from the verbs get, do, and gather.

The words while, to-morrow, yesterday, originally substantives, are used as adverbs.

1. ADVERBS ENDING IN "LY."-Ly, Anglo-Saxon lic, was once an independent word, the Anglo-Saxon lic-like. Words of this termination were, in Anglo-Saxon, compound adjectives. So, in Old English, we have the adjective eorthliche, earthly; ferliche, strange. In modern English there are words such as godly, lonely, lovely. Godly is equivalent to God-like. According to the present habit of the English language, an adjective is converted into an adverb by annexing ly; as, bright, brightly.

2. ADVERBS WITH THE PREFIX "A."-1. In some instances a stands in the place of the prepositions in or on; as, alive, anciently writ ten on lyve, i. e., in life, or in a living state. Aloud was anciently written on loud; as, "On loud he speired what art thou?" 2. It was formerly expressed by the preposition of; as, anew, anciently written of new, as we now say of late. 3. It is the article a; as, awhile, i. e., a time. 4. It is part of the pronominal adjective all; as, alone, anciently written all one, i. e., absolutely one. 5. It is corrupted from the participial prefix ge or ye; as, adrift. The prefix a belongs to many sea terms; as, aboard, ashore, &c., and to many other an

cient and modern words; afire in fire, on fire; ablaze on blaze; asleep in sleep.

ADVERBIAL PRONOUNS.

§ 363. Here, hence, hither, are in their origin related to the pronoun he. There, thence, and thither are in their origin related to the or that, as are where, whence, whither, to who or what. Then, when, are also related to that and what. Why is related to who, as also is how. Than and thus are severally related to that and this. The words here, there, where, united with other words, form a variety of compound adverbs; as, Hereafter, hereabout, hereat, hereby, herein, hereinto, hereof, hereon, hereupon, hereto, hereunto, heretofore, herewith, thereof, whereupon, &c.

The following distinction should be noticed concerning interrogatives. If you ask who, which, what, how many, you inquire concerning some noun; but if you ask where, whence, whither, when, how often, you inquire concerning some verb. Hence the propriety of calling the class which relates to nouns Pronouns, and the class that relates to verbs Adverbs.

ADVERBS FROM CONCRETE

SUBSTANTIVES.

§ 364. Adverbs formed from concrete substantives must be carefully distinguished from the ordinary cases or uses of such substantives.

Home, "to the house," an ancient accusative, to be distinguished from the ordinary accusative in "he loves his own home."

Always, "at all times," the accusative of time; compare the ordinary accusative in "he tries all ways of doing mischief."

Sometimes, "at some times," the accusative of time; compare the ordinary accusative in "he remembered some times of great distress." Awhile, "a while," the accusative of time, compare the ordinary accusative in "he spent a long while."

Needs, "from necessity," an ancient adverbial genitive from need. Noways, "in no manner," an ancient adverbial genitive from no

way.

Nightly, "by night," "every night," with adverbial suffix ly.

Beside, "by side," i. e., moreover; compare "he sat by the side." Between, "by twain," i. e., in the intermediate space; compare "by twain he did fly."

66

Away, on way," i. e., at a distance; compare "he stopped on the way."

§ 365. Seldom is the old dative of the adjective seld.

Whilom is the dative of the substantive while.

Else, unawares, eftsoons, by rights, are genitive forms of adjectives.

Needs (as in needs must go) is the genitive case of a substantive. Once, twice, thrice, are the genitive forms of numerals.

Little, less, well, are neuter accusatives of adjectives.

Athwart is a neuter accusative.

The neuter accusative is a common source of adverbs in all tongues.

ADVERBS HAVING THE SAME FORM AS ADJECTIVES.

§ 366. In Anglo-Saxon the adverb was usually formed from the adjective by the addition of e; as, Georn and geornlic, earnest; georne and geornlice, earnestly: sweotol, manifest; sweotole and sweotolice, manifestly: swidh and swidhlic, great; swidhe and swidhlice, greatly.

It is exactly by dropping this adverbial termination e, especially where the connection in meaning of the adverb and of the adjective is not immediately obvious, that in English many adverbs are found agreeing in form with the adjectives from which they are derived;

as,

1. Anglo-Saxon clan, adjective, and clæne, adverb. Whence English clean, adjective and adverb. The use of the adverb clean, signifying" entirely," is found in Josh. 3: 17; Ps. 77: 8, &c. Its connection with the adjective clean, signifying "pure," is not obvious at first view. This use of the adverb clean is now deemed inelegant. The form cleanly is used for the adverb in the more obvious

senses.

2. Anglo-Saxon clanlic, adjective, and clanlice, adverb. Whence English cleanly, adjective and adverb. The form cleanlily is objectionable on euphonic grounds, and is never used.

3. Anglo-Saxon fæst and fæstlic, adjective, and fæste and fæstlice, adverb, German fest, adverb. Whence English fast, adjective and adverb. The form fastly is not used at all.

4. Anglo-Saxon heag and healic, adjective, and heage and healice, adverb. Whence English high, adjective and adverb. The form high as an adverb is now nearly superseded by the form highly.

5. Anglo-Saxon heard and heardlic, adjective, and hearde and heardlice, adverb. Whence English hard, adjective and adverb. The