5. Forward, adjective, forwards, adverb. VI. HIND. 1. The place of the adverb is supplied by back or behind; that of the preposition by behind. 2. Behind, the emphatic form, employed both as an adverb and as a preposition. 3. Hinder, the comparative form, employed as an adjective. 4. Hindermost, the full superlative form, obsolete; also hindmost, the shorter superlative form; also hinderest, obsolete. 5. Backward, adjective, and backwards, adverb. VII. MID. 1. The place of the adverb and preposition is supplied by amidst. 2. Amidst, the compound and emphatic form, employed both as an adjective and as an adverb. 3. Wanting. 4. Middlemost, the superlative form. 5. Midward, obsolete. The other primitive Adverbs of Place are by, of and off, on, to and too, with. QUESTIONS UNDER CHAPTER VII. 1. Give the two definitions of the adverb, and origin of the term. 2. To what class of words does the adverb belong, and what are the several members of this class? 3. What is the origin of adverbs? Give an instance of an adverb derived from an adjective; and of one derived from a participle; and of one derived from a pronoun; and of one derived from a numeral; of one derived from a verb, and of one derived from a substantive. 4. What is said of adverbs ending in ly, and also of adverbs ending in a? 5. Mention some of the adverbial pronouns. 6. When you use the interrogatives who, which, &c., what part of speech do you inquire about? and when you use the interrogatives when, whence, &c., what part of speech do you inquire about? What inference do you draw in respect to the names given to these interrogatives? 7. Give some examples of adverbs formed from concrete substantives, and also of adverbs formed from cases. 8. Mention the three conclusions drawn from the examination of adverbs having the same form as adjectives. 9. Give some instances of adverbial phrases. 10. Give the classification of adverbs. 11. What question do adverbs of time answer? 12. What question do adverbs of place answer? What question do adverbs of number answer? What question do adverbs of manner answer? 13. Mention the primitive adverbs of place. CHAPTER VIII. PREPOSITIONS. § 371. A PREPOSITION is a word which can not by itself form the constituent part of a simple proposition, but which can enter into a complex proposition in combination with a noun or pronoun, to express some relation; as, Socrates, the son of Sophroniscus, was born at Alopece. Of, in this case, not only connects the word son with the word Sophroniscus, but it also shows the relation between them. At connects Alopece with the verb was born, and shows the relation between them. See § 240. Or, a Preposition is a word which connects an object with a verb or an adjective; as, "He went through New York;" "he belongs to no party;" "he is wise for himself." 1. The preposition, Latin præpositio, was so called because it was placed before the substantive to which it refers. Præpositio est pars orationis invariabilis, quæ præponitur aliis dictionibus. The name is faulty, inasmuch as it is founded on merely its position in the sentence, and not on its nature and office. The preposition was not uniformly placed before the noun to which it related. Tenus always comes after the noun which it governs, and cum occupies the same position in the expressions mecum, tecum, nobiscum, vobiscum. In English it always precedes the noun. 2. It was by some of the Greek grammarians classed with conjunctions, under the common term oúvdeouoc, or the connective, inasmuch as the preposition connects words and the conjunction senFrom its ordinary position, some of the Stoics called it ovvδεσμος προθετίκος. tences. 3. In showing the relations of words to each other, the preposition performs the same office in modern languages which case-endings did in the ancient languages. The relations which they express are various, such as relations of locality, of time, of causality. The original relation expressed by prepositions appears to have been that of locality. Prepositions are relational words or form-words. A A A LIST OF THE PREPOSITIONS. 372. 1. At, after (the comparative of aft), by, down, far, from, in, of, on, over, past, round, since, till, to, through, under, up, with. These have been called simple prepositions. 2. Aboard, above, about, across, against, along, amid, amidst, among, amongst, around, athwart. These are formed by prefixing a. 3. Before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, betwixt, beyond. These are formed by prefixing be. 4. Into, out of, throughout, toward, towards, upon, until, unto, underneath, within, without. These are formed by compounding two prepositions, or a preposition and an adverb. 5. Bating, barring, concurring, during, excepting, notwithstanding, regarding, respecting, touching. These were originally participles, and they can be treated as participles. 6. Save and except can be treated as verbs in the imperative mode. Nigh, near, next, opposite, can be viewed as prepositions in construction, or as adjectives, the preposition to being understood. Along may be considered as a preposition in certain combinations; as, "He went along the river." But, when equivalent to except, has the force of a preposition. 7. There are also certain Prepositional Phrases; as, According to, in respect of; as, On account of the love=propter amorem. ORIGIN OF CERTAIN PREPOSITIONS. § 373. ATHWART is from a and thwart, an adjective or a verb. Moved" contrary with thwart obliquities."-MILTON. "Swift as a shooting star in autumn thwarts the night."-Idem. The meaning of the word, here used as an adjective or verb, is seen in the preposition; as, "Moving athwart the sky." AcRoss, in formation and meaning, is analogical with athwart. AGAINST is from Anglo-Saxon gean, ongeon. It comes from the verb gan, to go. AMONG is from Anglo-Saxon onmang, verb gemengan, to mingle. ABOUT, AngloSaxon abutan. It seems to be related to the French word bout, the butt or limit of a thing. BETWEEN by twain, by twice. Sir PHILIP SIDNEY uses betweene as an adjective: "His authoritie having been abused by those great lords, who, in those betweene times of reigning, had brought in the worst kind of oligarchie." In the Old English we find the adverb atwayne: "With his axe he smote it atwayne." BEYOND seems to be of the same origin as the preposition against, being from the verb gan, to go. It is equivalent to "that place being passed." BE NEATH by the nether, that is, lower part. By, Anglo-Saxon be or big, Gothic bi, Swedish be, Danish by. The word, in composition, is often written be; as, Because, besiege. BEFORE, BEHIND, are of the same nature, in this respect, that fore and hind are to the nouns, in composition with be. They are still used in an adjectival sense in foreman, hind wheel, &c. tofore were formerly used instead of before, and they are the expressions aforesaid, heretofore. Afore and still used in FOR and FORE appear to have been originally the same word. Our common words "wherefore" and "therefore" are equivalent to "for which" and "for this ;" and the latter is often written forthy in ancient authors, as the former is written for why by some of modern date: "And forthy, if it happe in any wise That here be any cover in this place." "Solyman had three hundred field-pieces, that a camel might well carry one of them, being taken from the carriage; for why, Solyman, purposing to draw the emperor into battle, had brought no greater pieces of battery with him."-KNOLLE'S History of Turkey. Forsaid was used as foresaid, forlok for forelook. For still has a meaning kindred to fore or before. For is also used as a conjunction; as, "That ye may be the children of your Father who is in heaven; for he maketh his sun to rise on the evil and on the good." In such sentences for has the sense of because. It may be said, in general, that for indicates the cause or motive of any action or cir cumstance. IN, Latin in, Greek ev, Gothic in, Anglo-Saxon in, French en, Spanish en, Italian in, German ein, Danish ind, Sanscrit antu. This relates to place and time, and can be coupled, in the way of opposition, to out. This last word is in Anglo-Saxon ut. Various compounds are formed from these; as, Within, without, or inwith, outwith, as written by some ancient writers. The words withouten and forouten were also formerly used. Adown, afore, aneath, astride, despite, outside, per, &c., are sometimes used as prepositions. THE NATURE AND OFFICE OF PREPOSITIONS. § 374. 1. "The preposition is a word placed before a noun." This is merely an external definition, and does not indicate its internal nature. 2. Prepositions express neither essences (like substantives) nor activities (like verbs and adjectives), but only their relations. They express, not the substance, but the form of our ideas. Hence they are ranked by Becker with form-words. 3. Prepositions are indeclinable, as the relations of things are external to the things themselves, and are not affected by the changes which take place in them. 4. Prepositions express relations between verbs whose original nature consists in activity or motion, or some other parts of speech involving the verbal idea, and a noun expressing an essence. Of course, with very few exceptions, they denote local relations, or other relations conceived of as local relations by the mind. 5. The relations expressed by prepositions are either external or internal to the human mind. The external relations are of a physical nature, and obvious to the senses. The internal relations belong to the province of the intellect. As these higher relations are subject to the same analysis as the sensible relations, and the mind supposes a close resemblance between the physical and intellectual worlds, so prepositions denoting the external relations are also employed to express the internal. 6. Physical relations are for the most part local. Activity is motion. Relations of activity are directions of motion. These local relations arrange themselves in antitheses, forming a beautiful system; as, In and out, the only absolute relation of space; Latin eis and trans; before and behind; above and below, relative relations of space; to and from, relations of direction; into and out of, a compound relation, etc. This system is too little regarded in our common grammars. 7. Intellectual relations are conceived of as physical, and are expressed by prepositions denoting physical relations. They are exhibited to others as they strike our own minds. This is shown, (1.) In cases where the primary or physical meaning of the verb is lost; as, To copy from a picture; to rule over a country. (2.) In cases where the physical meaning is not lost; as, To rely on another's promise; to tend to a given result; to insult over any one. (3.) In cases where the force of the preposition had been already expressed in the verb; as, To consult with a person; to abstain from a thing; to concur with another; antipathy against another. 8. Prepositions thus exhibit a wonderful correlation between the intellectual and physical worlds; a correlation which shows that both worlds proceeded from the same Author. 9. Prepositions exhibit the wonderful economy of language. The number of relations is almost infinite, yet they are all expressed by |