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to begin; begyrdan, to begird. In English only where the import of the prefix is not obvious; as, Behead, become; or where the accent is drawn back; as, By-gone, by-past.

For, in the sense of forth or away; as, Anglo-Saxon forsendan, to send forth or away; forgifan, to forgive; forswerian, to forswear. In English in forbid, forgive, forswear.

Gain, in the sense of against; as, Anglo-Saxon geonberan, to oppose. In English in gainsay; also, gangive, gainstand, gainstrive. With; as, Anglo-Saxon wiɣledan, to lead away; wislecgan, to lay against; wisgan, to go against. In English only in withdraw, withhold, withstand.

VIII. THE

FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS.

393. 1. COMPOSITION, or the formation of compound words, is a special mode of forming new words and developing new ideas. 2. Composition, considered externally, is the combination of two words expressing distinct ideas, so as to form one word expressing one idea. The word thus formed is called a compound. This definition is sufficient for the merely practical grammarian.

3. Composition, considered in its internal nature, is, like many other linguistical processes, a development of the species from the genus; that is, the name of the genus, as boat, by prefixing the specific difference, as steam (i. e., moved by steam), now denotes the species, as steam-boat. This is the more philosophical definition.

4. In reference to the mental process in composition just described, the compound consists of two parts, viz., the general, or that which denotes the genus; and the special, or that which denotes the specific difference. The latter, which is the leading member of the composition, usually precedes, and has the tone or accent.

5. The unity of the word consists in the tone or accent, which binds together the two parts of the composition. The mere orthography is an uncertain criterion, being sometimes entirely arbitrary.

6. The unity of the idea consists in its referring to a specific thing well known as having a permanent existence.

7. Every composition is binary, or every compound consists properly of only two members, although these may themselves be compounded. Compare household - stuff, deputy-quarter-master-general, which must be analyzed conformably to this principle. The most plausible exception is Latin suovitaurus (whence suovitaurilia), “a swine, sheep, and bull."

8. Composition is an original process in language, distinct, on the one hand, from derivation, that is, the formation of words by inter

nal change of vowel and by suffixes, and, on the other, from the mere syntactical combination of ideas.

9. Composition differs essentially from the formation of words by internal change of vowel and by suffixes, in this, that derivation gives us different forms of ideas, as, Drink (noun), drinker, drinking (noun), to drench, all forms or modifications of the radical idea to drink; to set, to settle, sitter, setter, seat, sitting (noun), all from the radical idea to sit; while composition gives us species of idea; as, School-house, state-house, alms-house, all species under the general term house; door-key, chest-key, watch-key, species of keys.

10. As a mode of forming words, composition is later in its origin than derivation, and has arisen from the inadequacy of derivation to express the definite ideas which become necessary in language. Thus mere derivation would be insufficient to express the different kinds of keys; as, Door-key, chest-key, watch-key; or the different kinds of glasses; as, Beer-glass, wine-glass, etc.

11. Notwithstanding which, there is some common ground for derivation and composition, and the two forms may alternate. In such a case the derivative is the most forcible, and the compound is the most precise in its import. Thus we have in English (neglecting accidental differences of usage) hunter and huntsman, speaker and spokesman, trader and tradesman, plower and plowman, hatter and hatmaker, steamer and steam-boat, bakery and bake-house, brewery and brew-house, patchery and patch-work, treasury and treasure-house, deemster and domesman; so also where the words are radically distinct; as, Fowler and bird-catcher, Hollander and Dutchman, journal and daybook, marine and seaman, navigating and seafaring, propitiatory and mercy-seat, vintage and grape-gathering, vintner and wine-seller. These coincidences take place only when the second part of the compound is a very general or indefinite term, or has become so by use. In this way words originally compound acquire much of the character of derivatives.

12. Composition differs, also, from the mere syntactical combination of ideas. Composition is a development of words for constant, not merely for occasional use. It is not an arbitrary process in language, or a process to be adopted at pleasure. A proper compound must express a specific idea formed for permanent use in the language. Wherever it takes place, there should be an adequate cause or occasion. Not every combination of two ideas into one is properly expressed by a compound. Ideas combined at the moment of speaking or writing, for the first time, do not form compound words. It is owing to this principle that we have death-wound, not life

wound; father-land, not son-land; fox-hunter, not sheep-hunter; earthquake, not sea-quake; brown bread, not fresh bread; sea-sick, not terror-sick, because the latter terms of these couplets are not called for.

13. The difference between the compound word and the mere syntactical construction may be seen,

(1.) By comparing black-bird, a species of bird, with a black bird; so red-bird, black-berry, mad-house.

(2.) By comparing fox-tail, a plant so named from resemblance, with the tail of a fox; so bear's-ear, goat's-beard, lady's-finger. (3.) By comparing rat's-bane, a substance so called from its nature, with the bane of a rat; so catch-fly, king's-evil, liver-wort.

14. The unity of the compound is further evident by considering, (1.) That in many words the members of the composition do not appear at first view, nor are they generally understood; as, Biscuit, curfew, daisy, kerchief, quinsy, squirrel, surgeon, verdict, vinegar.

(2.) That in many words the meaning has so altered that the reason of the composition is not obvious; as, Frankincense, holiday, landlord, mildew, quicksand, quicksilver, pastime, privilege, Sunday, vouchsafe.

(3.) That compounds may often be expressed by simple words, either in the same or another language; as, Brimstone, sulphur ; May-bug, a chaffer; wine-glass, a tumbler; sheep-fold, Latin ovile; vine-yard, Latin vinea; foot-man, Latin pedes; oak-grove, Latin quercetum; dove-house, Latin columbarium.

TEUTONIC COMPOUNDS.

§ 394. Compound words in English, as distinguished from derivatives, have received comparatively but little attention; yet, from the great variety of the component parts, and the different relations in which they stand to each other, it is evident that these words deserve a more minute investigation.

Composition is the union of two independent words in order to form one. This union may be more or less complete.

I. Imperfect Composition.-When the two words denote distinct attributes of one and the same object, and their syntactical connection may be expressed by the simple conjunction and, the composition is then incomplete or imperfect. Of this nature are,

1. The union of two common names; as, God-man, God and man (compare Gr. deavoрwпоç; Germ. fürst-bischof, prince and bishop; butter-brot, bread and butter; mann-weib, man and woman).

2. The union of two adjectives; as, Deaf-mute, deaf and mute

(compare Germ. taub-stumm, Fr. sourd-muet); first-last, first and last (used by Young).

3. The union of two numerals; as, Fourteen, four and ten (comp. Lat. quatuordecim).

4. The union of two synonymous or nearly synonymous words; as, Hap-hazard, hap and hazard (comp. Germ. ehrfurcht, honor and fear).

Words of Teutonic origin, of this class, divide the accent or tone between the two parts of the compound; as, God-man; while those of Latin origin follow the analogy of English words; as, Hermaphrodite.

That the two words are united in one is evident from the fact that the latter part only of the compound is capable of change by inflection or derivation; as, genitive God-man's, plural deaf-mutes, derivative ordinal fourteenth, etc.

II. Perfect Composition.-When the two words form one complex idea, then the composition is complete or perfect. Of this there are two kinds :

1. When the two parts of the compound are in apposition or concord with each other. Here may be included,

(1.) The union of two common names; as, Foe-man.

(2.) The union of the species and genus; as, Oak-tree.

(3.) The union of a proper name and the genus; as, Flint River. (4.) The union of two proper names; as, Charles Richards.

2. When one part of the compound stands in rection, or government, in reference to the other, the latter part of the composition expressing the principal or generic idea, and the former part some modification thereof; as, Snow-white, steam-boat.

The modifications to be expressed by the former part of the composition are very numerous, and may conveniently be arranged as cases are in our most scientific grammars:

(1.) Where the first term expresses the nominative case, or the relation of the subject; as, Cock-crowing, the time at which cocks crow; slave-born (compare Anglo-Saxon theowboren), born a slave.

(2.) Where the first term expresses the dative case, or the case of participation; as, Head-band, a band for the head; tea-cup, a cup for tea; fire-brick, a brick that will endure the fire; fire-proof, secure against fire.

(3.) Where the first term expresses the accusative case, or the relation of the object; as, Shoe-maker, one that makes shoes; winebibber, one that drinks much wine; time-keeper, a machine that keeps time.

(4.) Where the first term expresses the modal case, or the rela

C c

tion of the mode or manner; as, Stone-blind, blind as a stone; snowwhite, white like snow; snow-whiteness, whiteness like snow; brandnew, new like a brand.

(5.) Where the first term expresses the ablative case, or the relation of the place whence; as, Land-breeze, a breeze from the land; straw bed, a bed made of straw; blood-guilty, guilty from blood or bloodshed; blood-guiltiness, guiltiness from bloodshed; toll-free, free from toll; careless, loose or free from care.

(6.) Where the first term expresses the locative case, or the relation of the place where; as, Land-force, a force serving on land; homespun, spun at home; night-dew, dew that falls by night; woebegone, lost in woe.

(7.) Where the first term expresses the terminal case, or the relation of the terminus ad quem; as, Ground-bait, bait for fish which sinks to the bottom; home-speaking, forcible and efficacious speaking; ten-foot-pole, a pole ten feet in length.

(8.) Where the first term expresses the instrumental case, or the relation of the place by or through which; as, Way-laid, watched by the way; steam-boat, a boat moving by steam; wind-mill, a mill turned by the wind; moth-eaten, eaten by moths; careful, full of care.

The same compound may sometimes belong to two classes; as, Horse-boat, a boat for conveying horses, see No. (2.); also, a boat moved by horses, see No. (8.).

3. The first word has the form of the genitive case:

(1.) In some names of plants; as, Bear's-ear, bear's-foot, bear'swort, cat's-foot, cat's-head, goat's-beard, goat's-rue, goat's-thorn, hound'stongue, lady's-bower, lady's-comb, lady's-cushion, lady's-finger, lady'smantle, lady's-seal, lady's-slipper, lady's-braces, Turk's-cap, Turk'shead, Turk's-turban, etc.

(2.) In some names of minerals; as, Cat's-eye, rat's-bane. (3.) In some nautical terms; as, Cat's-paw.

(4.) In some miscellaneous examples; as, Day's-man, king's evil, kinsfolk, kinsman, kinswoman, spokesman.

Sometimes these compounds contain the remains of ancient cases: (1.) of the genitive; as, Aqueduct, from Latin aquæ ductus, a conveyance of water; (2.) of the dative; as, Deodand, from Latin Deo dandum, a thing forfeited to God; (3.) of the ablative; as, Vicegerent, from Latin vice gerens, acting by substitution; manumission, from Latin manu missio, a setting free; locomotive, from Latin loco motivus, changing its place; (4.) of the locative; as, Nightingale, from Teutonic nachtigall, a bird that sings in the night; (5.) of the genitive plural; as, Triumvir, from Latin trium vir, a man of three.

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