As the first part of the compound modifies the second, it is easy to distinguish between bean-pole, a pole for beans, and pole-bean, a bean that grows around poles; work-house, a house for work, and house-work, work done in a house; freight-ship, a ship for freight, and ship-freight, the freight carried by a ship; flower-garden, a garden for flowers, and garden-flower, a flower growing in a garden; book-shop, a shop for books, and shop-book, an account-book; mankind, the kind or race of man, and kinman, a man of the same race or family; chestnut-horse, a horse of the color of a chestnut, and horse-chestnut, a large nut; compare Anglo-Saxon theow-weore, slavework, and weorc-theow, work-slave.

Sometimes, when the two terms are in apposition, the parts of the compound may be inverted without an essential change in the meaning; as, Servant-woman and woman-servant; English hornpipe and Welsh pibcorn;, Anglo-Saxon beot-word and word-beot; German raub-mord and mord-raub; sturm-wind and wind-sturm.

III. Inverted Composition.-There is a class of compound words deserving some attention, in which the order of the terms is inverted; as, Breakfast (compare Anglo-Saxon fæstenbryce, fast-breach, with the parts of the compound in the natural order); break-promise (an obsolete word, for which we now use promise-breaker); breakstone (obsolete, now stone-break, compare Latin saxifragum); picktooth (or, more commonly, tooth-pick or tooth-picker). This class includes,

1. Words peculiar to the English language :

(1.) Trivial names in botany and zoology; as, Break-stone (obsolete); catch-fly, cut-water, turn-stone, wagtail.

(2.) Marine terms; as, Break-water, cut-water.

(3.) Terms used by printers; as, Catch-word.

(4.) Words of reproach; as, Break-promise (obsolete), break-vow (obsolete), catch-poll, cut-purse, cut-throat, hang-dog (obsolete), killbuck (obsolete), kill-cow (obsolete), pick-lock, pick-fault (obsolete), pickpocket, pickpurse, pick-quarrel (obsolete), pickthank, scape-gallows, scapethrift (obsolete), scare-crow, smellfeast, spendthrift, telltale, turncoat, turnspit, toss-pot, want-wit.

(5.) Miscellaneous words; as, Breakfast (probably used at first to denote a trivial meal), catch-penny, pick-tooth.

It is easily seen that there is one character pervading this sort of words.

2. Words derived from the French which are more dignified; as, Pastime, port-crayon, port-folio, port-glave, portmanteau, wardrobe; also, hotchpot.

IX. DISGUISED TEUTONIC DERIVATIVES AND COM

POUNDS.

395. Derivatives and compounds in English, as in other languages, are usually formed on regular principles. Some few of them, however, especially those coming into extensive use, are so corrupted or disguised as greatly to obscure their origin.

EXAMPLES.-1. Atone, literally to be, or cause to be, at one, compounded of at and one. Compare Latin aduno, to unite.

This origin of the word atone is obscured only in the pronunciation. The numeral has the same sound as in the derivative only. This explanation of the word atone is confirmed historically by extracts like the following from the old writers:

"If gentilmen, or other of that contree,

Were wroth, she wolde bringen hem at on,

So wise and ripe wordes hadde she."—CHAUCER.

"But also [it is required] that thou be fervent and diligent to make peace and to go betwene, where thou knowest or hearest malice and envie to be, or seest hate or strife to arise between person and person, and that thou leave nothing unsought to set them at one."-TYNDALL.

"And lyke as he made the Jewes and the gentiles at one be-twene themselves, even so he made them both at one with God, that there should be nothing to breake the atonement, but that the thynges in heaven and the thynges in earth shoulde be joyned together, as it were, into one body."-UDAL.

"Ye witlesse gallants, I beshrew your hearts,

That set such discord 'twixt agreeing parts,

Which never can be set at onement more

Until the maw's wide mouth be stopped with store."

Bishop HALL.

"The Hebrew kaphar signifies to appease, to pacify, to reconcile a person offended, to atone or make him at one again with the offender."-Bishop BEVERIDGE.

2. Daisy (Anglo-Saxon dæges eage, day's eye, compounded of dages, day's, and eage, eye), the name of a spring flower, as if the eye of the day.

3. Not (Old German niowiht, compounded of ne and awiht; AngloSaxon nawht, compounded of ne and awht), a particle expressing negation, denial, or refusal; the same word as naught or nought, compounded of ne, not, and aught, any thing.

CLASSICAL ELEMENT OF THE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

396. The following statements on this subject are deemed important:

1. The separation between Gothic or Teutonic and Classic words needs to be made with great discrimination.

Thus wade and waddle are of Teutonic origin (compare Anglo-Saxon wadan, German waten and watscheln), and not to be derived from Latin vado.

Drag is of Teutonic origin (compare Anglo-Saxon dragan, German tragen), and not from Latin traho.

Long, length, and linger, are of Teutonic origin (compare MasoGothic laggs, Anglo-Saxon lang, lengs, German lang), and not from Latin longus.

Meager is of Teutonic origin (compare Anglo-Saxon mæger, German mager), and not from Latin macer. The orthography meager seems, however, to have been affected by the French form maigre, which perhaps is of Teutonic origin.

Rank and rankle are of Teutonic origin (compare Anglo-Saxon ranc, German ranzig), and not from Latin ranceo.

2. The cognate roots in Latin and Teutonic, when they coexist in the English language, need to be noticed.

Thus, Latin vad, whence come invade, invader, invasive, invasion; and Anglo-Saxon wade, whence come wader, wading, waddle. Latin volu, whence come revolve, revolution, revolt, voluble, volume, volute, volt, valve; and Anglo-Saxon wealw, whence come wallow, wallower, wallowing.

Latin trah, whence come trace, track, tract, trait, attract, attrahent, attractive, portray; and Anglo-Saxon drag, whence come drag, draw, draggle.

This point is the more important, as, out of two hundred Latin roots involved in English words, more than one third are cognate to roots already existing in the Teutonic portion of our language. The cognation in stem-nouns is probably not so great.

3. Words of Latin and words of Greek origin should be distinguished from each other. This separation often requires nice discrimination. Thus, aerology and aeronaut are from the Greek aer; and aerial and aeriform are from the Latin aer.

4. The cognate roots of the Latin and Greek languages, when they coexist in the English language, need to be noticed. Thus,

Greek

Greek

ag, whence paragoge, and Latin √ ag, whence agent ; aph, whence apsis, and Latin √ ap, whence apt; Greek

√ aug, whence auxesis, and Latin Vaug, whence augment; Greek √ klin, whence clinic, and Latin √ clin, whence incline; Greek √ kri, whence crisis, and Latin root cre, whence secret; Greek √ gen, whence genesis, and Latin √ gen, whence general; Greek √ gno, whence gnosis, and Latin √ gno, whence ignorant.

5. The corresponding forms of Greek and Latin prefixes should be noticed. Thus, Greek an=Latin in (negative); Greek anti– Latin ante; Greek apo Latin ab; Greek dia-Latin dis; Greek ee =Latin e or ex; Greek en Latin in.

6. The corresponding forms of Greek and Latin suffixes should be noticed. Thus, Greek icos Latin icus; Greek ôn-Latin ens; Greek tos Latin tus.

7. The difference of the union-vowel in Latin and in Greek compounds should be attended to. Thus, aer-i-form and agr-i-culture come from the Latin, and aer-o-naut and phil-o-sophy from the Greek.

8. The distinction between stem-words and derivatives from the same root should be noticed. Thus, toga is a stem-word, and tegument a derivative from Latin √ teg.

9. The distinction between primary derivatives and secondary derivatives from the same root should be noticed. Thus, agile is a primitive derivative, and agility a secondary derivative from Latin

ag.

10. The mutilated or disguised Latin forms should be noted, and referred to their regular forms. Thus, boil should be referred to the √ bull, in ebullition; noy to the √ noc, in innocent; cay, in decay, to the cad, in decadence.

11. The combination of Latin and Teutonic words to make one family should be noticed. Thus, length from the Anglo-Saxon, and longitude from the Latin, are so combined; also, son from the AngloSaxon, and filial from the Latin.

12. Greek words which have come down to us from the Teutonic should be distinguished from others. Such words are alms, bishop, devil, priest.

13. Latin words which have come down to us through the AngloSaxon should be distinguished from others. Such words are ark, candle, chalice, etc.

The best mode of exhibiting these things, in the common manuals, to the mind of the pupil, is still a desideratum.

NATURAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE LATIN PORTION OF OUR LANGUAGE.

397. The natural development of the Latin language, so far as the Latin portion of our tongue is concerned, has been nearly as follows:

I. Stem-verbs, or roots, originally denoting physical action or motion; as, Bib, carp, cede, fend, lave, merge, move, plague, probe, sculp, tend, tinge, urge, verge, vex.

Most of the verbs here concerned appear in English only in derivatives and compounds. To these, in accordance with the practice of European philologists, we prefix the mathematical surd sign ; as, vi, "to go;"√sta, "to stand;" Vag, "to drive;" ✓ duc, "to lead;" frag, "to break."

II. Stem-adjectives, to be referred in each case to a verbal root, whether such root actually exists or not; as, Bland, brute; brev, "short," cec, "blind."

III. Stem-substantives, to be referred in each case to a verbal root, whether such root actually exists or not; as, Arc, barb; can, dog," cib, "food."

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IV. Primary derivatives, or derivatives from the root or stem by means of a single suffix; as, Act, final, factor, justice.

V. Secondary derivatives; as, Tolerable, moderate.

VI. Derivative words with prefixes; as, Abrade, allude.

VII. Compound words; as, Leopard, decemvir, privilege, satisfy, solstice, cisalpine, republic.

To these we may add,

I. Romanic stem-verbs or roots.

II. Romanic stem-adjectives.

III. Romanic stem-substantives.

IV. Romanic derivative words with suffixes.

V. Romanic derivative words with prefixes.

VI. Romanic compounds.

VII. Disguised Romanic derivatives and compounds.

I. LATIN ROOTS.

§ 398. The Latin root in English is often hidden or concealed by the numerous syllables by which it is surrounded; as, √i in transitoriness; dic in dedicate.

Latin roots in English are often modified by the following processes, which all deserve attention:

1. A root ending in a single consonant usually assumes, in becoming a word, a silent e; as, Imbibe, produce, deride, convene, move. Sometimes it assumes mute ue; as, Plague.

So in some roots ending with a double consonant; as, Infringe. 2. The root sometimes assumes an infinitive termination t, which is derived from tum, the termination of the supine or ancient infinitive form in Latin; as, dict in predict, from √ dic.

3. The root often assumes an epenthetic n; as, Frang in frangible, from frag.