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QUESTIONS UNDER CHAPTER IV.

1. What is an argument?

2. What is the conclusion?

3. What are the premises?

4. Give an example of an argument; and state which are the two premises, and which the conclusion.

5. Are both premises always expressed?

6. Of how many parts does an argument consist? and what are they? and what are they called?

7. In what order are they stated? and what conjunctions are employed in stating them?

8. What are arguments called which are stated without the third proposition?

9. How is the word argument employed in common discourse?

10. What is a syllogism? Give an example.

11. How many terms has a syllogism? Name and describe them.

12. How many propositions has a syllogism? Name and describe them. 13. Mention the canons and the rules.

14. What is the mode of a syllogism? How many combinations are there? and in how many can a syllogism be expressed?

15. What is the figure of a syllogism?

16. Describe the first figure, and give an illustration. 17. Describe the second figure, and give an illustration. 18. Describe the third figure, and give an illustration. 19. What is an enthymeme? Give an example. 20. What is a rhetorical enthymeme? 21. Describe a conditional syllogism. logisms are there? Give examples of each. 22. What is a sorites? Give an example. 23. What is a dilemma?

Give an example.

What two kinds of conditional syl

24. Describe the three classes of dilemma, and give an example of each. 25. What are analogical propositions? and what is an argument from anal? Give an instance.

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29. What is a fallacy? and what are several kinds of fallacies?

30. Give some account of the undistributed middle, with an example; and of an illicit process, with an example; and of negative premises, with an example; and of a petitio principii, with an example; and of an ignoratio, with an example.

31. Give some promiscuous examples of fallacies.

EXERCISES UNDER PART V.

LOGICAL ANALYSIS.

§*475. LOGICAL ANALYSIS is that process by which the Logical Forms in a passage are distinguished, named, and described.

EXAMPLES.

1. The art, the literature, and the eloquence of all times have united in paying a common homage to the Bible.

The whole sentence is a PROPOSITION.

The art, the literature, and the eloquence of all times is the SUBJECT.

Have united in paying a common homage to the Bible is the PREDICATE.

The subject and the predicate are the TERMS.

2. Gold is a metal, often found pure in the shape of dust, is heavy, and is coined into eagles.

Gold is a SPECIES; metal is the GENUS; often found pure in the shape of dust is the DIFFERENTIA; heavy is a PROPERTY; coined into eagles is an ACCIDENT. These are PREDICABLES.

3. Whatever exhibits marks of contrivance and design is the work of an intelligent author. The world exhibits marks of contrivance and design. Therefore the world is the work of an intelligent author.

Here we have three propositions. The first is the MAJOR PREMISE. The second is the MINOR PREMISE. The third is the

CONCLUSION.

The work of an intelligent author is the MAJOR TERM.
The world is the MINOR TERM.

Exhibits marks of contrivance and design is the MIDDLE

TERM.

The three propositions, taken together, are a SYLLOGISM.

Analyze the following passage, and state which are propositions; which are the Logical subjects; which are Logical predicates; and mention any other Logical forms.

This evil, of positively bad reasoning, of concluding what can not be justly concluded, arises from a want of due acquaintance with the instrument necessarily used in every process of reason

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ing, namely, language. And hence appears the importance of those two studies which teach us to analyze, logic and grammar. Language is indeed a wonderful instrument, but the very facility of using it with a certain degree of effect, for we all talk and occasionally argue, is apt to conceal from us the difficulty of acquiring a perfect command of it. We constantly find persons both speaking and writing vaguely: using words in different senses, or in no well-defined sense at all, without being aware of it; and, as never having analyzed the process of correct reasoning, arguing in a manner at random, and supposing that to be proof, or an answer to an objection, which in reality is not These are faults for which the study of grammar and of logic is the appropriate remedy. In both, we take language to pieces, examine its structure, and learn to appreciate and recognize those defects to which it is the most liable. In logic, especially, we learn what may be called the skeleton of reasoning, that simple form, which, however concealed under the more ornamental form of our common style of talking or writing, as the skeleton is concealed by our flesh, can never be really departed from without involving a fallacy. Knowing this skeleton accurately, we can in an instant feel, even through the covering, the flesh, so to speak, of our ordinary language, whether all the bones are in their right places; nay, we know where to suspect disorder, and, by passing our probe at once to the suspected part, we can see whether or no all is sound.-ARNOLD.

SYNTHESIS.

1. Compose sentences in which there shall be various terms. 2. Compose sentences in which there shall be various predicables.

3. Compose a logical definition of some term.

4. Compose sentences in which there shall be a universal affirmative and a universal negative; and a particular affirmative and a particular negative.

5. Compose a simple proposition and a complex proposition. 6. State a syllogism, and mention which is the major premise; and the minor; and the conclusion; and which is the major term, the minor term, and the middle term.

7. Compose sentences containing other logical forms.

PART VI.

SYNTACTICAL FORMS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

CHAPTER I.

DEFINITIONS.

§ 476. SYNTAX, from the Greek oúv, with, táğıç, arrangement, treats of the arrangement and combination of words in propositions and sentences.

Etymology deals with the forms of single words, and teaches the office and power of the different parts of speech. Syntax deals with groups of words, and teaches how to combine the several parts of speech together in propositions and sentences.

SYNTACTICAL FORMS are combinations of words viewed only in their relation to each other, according to the laws of the language. Thus "Of government" is a syntactical form, in which the preposition governs the noun. "A wise son" is a syntactical form, in which the article "a" and the adjective "wise" belong to the substantive "son." Syntactical forms are either sentences, or members, or clauses, or phrases, or any two words related to each other in the way of agreement and government. CONCORD is the agreement which one word has with another in Gender, Number, Case, or Person.

GOVERNMENT is that power which one word has over another in directing its Mode, Tense, or Case.

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CONVERTIBILITY.-In Syntax, one part of speech is often used for another, and may therefore be said to be convertible, as in this example, To err is human error is human. The combination to err is an Infinitive verb, and yet it is converted from its primary use into a noun. In like manner, the Participle is used as a substantive; as, Erring is dangerous error is dan gerous. The Adjective is converted into a substantive; as, The evils of life; the goods of fortune. So an Adverb, a Preposition, or a Conjunction can be used for a noun; as, One long now=present time; he said from, not to; none of your ifs.

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In these examples, now, from, and if are used as Substantives. In like manner, a Preposition can be converted into an Adjective; as, A through ticket.

GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENTS.-When one phrase or word can take the place of another phrase or word in a sentence without materially changing the meaning of the sentence, it is a Grammatical equivalent of the other: To err is human=error is huThe sign of equality used in mathematics (=) is the sign in grammar for Grammatical equivalents. See § 540.

man.

A SENTENCE is the expression of a thought in words. A declarative sentence is the same as a proposition. Sentences may consist either of one proposition, or of two or more propositions connected together. A sentence consisting of one proposition is called a Simple Sentence; as, "I study my lesson." A sentence consisting of two or more propositions is called a Compound Sentence; as, "Industry procures a competence, and frugality preserves it."

Sentences are Declarative; as, "I am writing." Interrog ative; as, "Where am I?" Imperative; as, "Be quiet." Conditional; as, "If he should grieve." Exclamatory; as, "O wretched man that I am!" For a more full account of sentences, see § 531.

THE RELATION OF SYNTAX TO LOGIC.

§ 477. So closely connected is Grammar with Logic, the former having originally grown out of the latter, that a thorough knowledge of syntactical forms can not be acquired without a previous knowledge of certain logical forms and logical terms. Part Fifth of this work is, therefore, to be viewed as strictly subsidiary and preparatory to Part Sixth. To that part the student is referred especially for the Definition of such Names as TERMS, SIMPLE TERMS, COMPLEX TERMS, PROPOSITION, COMPLEX PROPOSITION, COMPOUND PROPOSITION.

GRAMMATICAL SUBJECT.

§ 478. The GRAMMATICAL SUBJECT is the same as the Logical Subject, when the latter is a simple term or single word; as, "God is great." Here the Grammatical Subject of the verb is and the Logical Subject are the same, namely, God.

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