other words, the word me expresses the object of an action, and the meaning is different from the meaning of the simple expression I strike.

Note VII.-In the phrase I fear me, the verb fear is intransitive or neuter; in other words, the word me (unless, indeed, fear mean terrify) expresses no object of any action at all, while the meaning is nearly the same as in the simple expression I fear. Here the reflective pronoun appears out of place, i. e., after a neuter or intransitive verb. Such a use, however, is but the fragment of an extensive system of reflective verbs thus formed, developed in different degrees in the different Gothic languages, and in all more than in the English. It is slightly intensive. See LATHAM, p. 432.

EXERCISES UNDER RULE XVI.

C. S.

"We

RULE XVI.-In his anger he struck himself. C. S. strike ourselves" is strictly Reflective; "we strike each other"

is Reciprocal.

Note I.-a. I will go myself to the post-office. C. S.

b. I will see John himself on this business.

C. S.

c. He himself will go to New York. C. S.

Note II. He suffers, but the fault is in ourselves. C. S. Note III-a. He is obliging, but he loves his own dear self. C. S.

b. The ill opinion of mankind is often misplaced; but our own of ourselves, never.-JOHN RANDOLPH. C. S.

Note IV. I am mindful that myself (am or is) strong. C. S. Note V.-My brother, my sister, and myself will come. F. S. Note VI.-a.

Salem, in ancient majesty

Arise and lift thee to the sky!-S. WARTON. C.S. b. During the preparatory scene, sit thee down. C. S.

Note VII.

An enemy unto you all,

And no great friend, I fear me, to the king.

2 Henry V., i., 1.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

§ 501. RULE XVII.-The Demonstrative Pronouns THIS, THAT, THESE, and THOSE, represent nouns only in the third person, inasmuch as they are used by the first person, or the person speak

ing, to point out to the second person some object; as, "Religion raises men above themselves; irreligion sinks them beneath the brutes: that binds them down to a poor pitiable speck of earth; this opens for them a prospect in the skies."

Note I-When THIS and THAT, THESE and THOSE, are used in the sense of latter and former, THIS and THESE stand for the "latter," THAT and THOSE for the "former:"

'Then palaces and lofty domes arose;

These for devotion, and for pleasure those."

Note II. The personal pronoun THEM is sometimes improperly used for THESE and THOSE; as, "Give me them books," for "give me those books." This error can be historically account

ed for by referring to the demonstrative power of THEM.

EXERCISES UNDER RULE XVII.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

RULE XVII.-a. Spain was carrying on war against our trade, and that in the most insulting manner, during the whole time of our negotiations.-Lord CHATHAM. C. S.

b. Lord Carlisle's recent lecture upon Pope, addressed to an audience of artisans, drew the public attention first of all upon himself that was inevitable.-DE QUINCEY. C. S.

Note I.-a.

b.

Errors in the life breed errors in the brain,

And these reciprocally those again. C. S.

Some place the bliss in action, some in ease;

Those call it pleasure, and contentment these. C. S.

Note II. Do you not admire them trees on the common? F. S.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

§ 502. RULE XVIII-RELATIVE PRONOUNS agree with the nouns and pronouns which they represent in gender, number, and person; as, "God rules the world which he created;" "O Thou who dwellest in the heavens."

Note I.-Relative pronouns serve to connect propositions; as, "The friend who relieved me has come." Here are two propositions, 1. The friend has come; 2. The friend (or he) relieved These two propositions are connected by the relative WHO,

me.

which expresses the identity between the persons mentioned in the proposition. The proposition in which the relative stands, has been called the Relative Proposition.

Note II-When there are two words in a clause, each capable of being an antecedent, the relative refers to the latter: 1. Solomon, the son of David, who slew Goliath. This is unexceptionable. 2. Solomon, the son of David, who built the Temple. This is exceptionable. The relative should be placed as near as possible to the antecedent, to prevent ambiguity; as, Solomon, who built the temple, was the son of David.

Note III.-When two antecedents of different persons, one of which is the subject and the other the predicate, precede the relative, the relative must agree with the one or the other, according to the meaning which the writer wishes to communicate: 1. "I am the man who command" "I who command am the man""I the commander am the man." 2. "I am the man who commands"="I am the commander." If the writer wishes to communicate the meaning in the sentence "I the commander am the man," he will make the relative agree with the subject. If he wishes to communicate the meaning contained in the sentence "I am the commander," he will make the relative agree with the predicate.

Note IV. When the relative and the antecedent are in different cases, and the relative is omitted, the antecedent is sometimes put in the case of the relative:

"Him I accuse

The city gates by this has entered."-Coriolanus, v., 5. The reason of this is clear. The verb that determines the case of the relative is brought into contact with the antecedent, and thus by association determines its case.

Note V.-a. WHO and WHOм represent nouns of the masculine gender and of the feminine gender; as, "The man who came;" "the woman who came."

b. WHO is sometimes used indefinitely without an anteced"I do not care who knows it."

ent; as,

WHICH represents nouns used for infants, for irrational animals, and for inanimate things; as, "The child which I saw is learning to walk;" "The bird which sang so sweetly has flown;" "The rivers which flow into the sea are fed by rains."

There are many cases, however, in which wнo is used for animals; as, "Every body knows and loves the beautiful story of the dog Argos, who just lives through the term of his master's absence, and sees him return to his home, and recognizes him, and, rejoicing in the sight, dies. The propriety of this use of who is by some grammarians deemed questionable.”

WHICH formerly was used as a representative of persons; as, "Mighty men which were of old."

WHOSE represents nouns of the masculine gender, of the feminine gender, and of the neuter gender; as, "The man whose name was John," "the woman whose name was Jane," "the fruit whose name is banana."

THAT, as a relative, is generally used,

a. After superlatives; as, "The wisest man that ever lived is liable to error."

b. After the word same; as, "He is the same man that came yesterday."

c. After a collective noun denoting a body of persons; as, "The army that marched out to battle has been defeated."

d. After who, taken interrogatively; as, "Who that has the spirit of a man would suffer himself to be thus degraded ?"

e. After persons and things taken conjointly; as, "The men and things that we saw yesterday."

THAT may often be considered as restrictive, even when the antecedent is not preceded by the definite article, as it should be when the other relatives are used. Thus, "All words that are signs of complex ideas furnish matter of mistake," is phraseology equivalent to "all the words which are signs of complex ideas furnish matter of mistake."

THAT used as a relative does not admit a preposition before it; as, "He is the same man with that you were acquainted;" but we say, "He is the same man that you were acquainted with.” Note VI.-There is an elliptical form of expression in the use of superlatives and ordinal numbers which may occasion some ambiguity. Thus, "He was the first that came," may mean either that "he was the first of those who came," or that "he that came was the first." When this distinction is not clearly marked by a diversity of arrangement, a regular diversity of pronouns would prevent ambiguity. THAT should be invariably

used when the expression is elliptical, and WHO and WHICH When there is no ellipsis, or when the second subject of comparison is not involved in the relative clause. Thus, if we mean to say, "He was the first of those who came," it might be expressed, "He was the first that came." When no ellipsis is intended, "He was the first who came"="He who came was the first.”

Note VII-When relatives connected by a conjunction refer to the same antecedent, they should not change their form; as, "He that defeated the Austrian armies in Italy, and who afterward marched to Vienna at the head of his veteran soldiers.” Instead of change of form, the relative in each case should be either who or that.

Note VIII-Collective nouns, unless they express persons directly, require the relative WHICH OF THAT; as, "He instructed the crowds which surrounded him." Here who would be improper. "The people who claim to be judges in the case proceeded to inflict lynch law upon him." Here the personality is more distinctly brought out; accordingly, who is proper. "But there are phrases still living in our tongue where the article (or personal pronoun) seems to have the power of a relative; I mean those in which our ordinary grammars tell us that the relative is omitted or understood. Thus, "The man you just saw is the celebrated N.;' 'The gentleman you were talking with I do not know;' 'Him I accuse the city ports by this hath entered.' Now in each of these phrases, the first word, call it what you please, is virtually a relative: Quem verum modo vidisti est clarissimus ille N.;' Quem alloquebaris ego haud novi;' 'Quem accuso intravit jam portam."-T. Hewitt Key, vol. iii., Phil. Soc., p. 59.

EXERCISES UNDER RULE XVIII.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

RULE XVIII-a. Henry is a pupil which possesses fine talents. F. S.

b. Curran! Curran's the man who struck me most. Such imagination! There never was any thing like it. He was a wonderful man, even to me who had seen many remarkable men of the time.-BYRON. C. S.

c. And now, when I saw myself declining day by day, I turn