CHAPTER X.

SYNTAX OF COMPOUND SENTENCES.

§ 536. Two simple sentences are connected either by way of CO-ORDINATION or by way of SUBORDINATION, and thus form a COMPOUND SENTENCE.

When two sentences are so related to each other as to form one thought, each, however, being in a measure independent of the other, they are connected by way of Co-ordination; as, “He was ill, and called for a physician;" "Socrates was wise, Plato also was wise." The two sentences taken together constitute a co-ordinate compound sentence.

When two sentences are so related to each other that the one defines and explains the other, and the one is dependent on the other, they are connected in the way of Subordination; as, "He reported that the king died;" "Since the spring has come, the roses bloom." "He reported" is the principal sentence; "that the king died" is the subordinate sentence, which defines the other, and the two taken together constitute a subordinate compound sentence. This compound sentence is sometimes called a complex sentence, to distinguish it from the compound co-ordinate sentence.

CO-ORDINATE SENTENCES.

§ 537. I. COPULATE CO-ORDINATE SENTENCES are those which are connected by the copulative conjunction or their equivalents; as, "The moon and the stars shine" the moon shines and the stars shine; "He will be there as well as you;" "John will arrive, also James;" "She was not only beautiful, but modest."

II. An ADVERSATIVE CO-ORDINATE SENTENCE is one in which the clauses that are contrasted with each other are united to form one thought. The opposition or contrast is of such a nature that the thought in the co-ordinate clause either merely limits or restrains the thought of the preceding clause, or wholly denies it; as, "He is indeed poor, but brave;" "He is not guilty, but innocent ;" "I did indeed welcome him to my house,

but I found that he was a rascal;" "Though He slay me, yet will I trust in Him."

III. A DISJUNCTIVE CO-ORDINATE SENTENCE is one in which the two clauses composing the entire sentence are united in one whole, but one of which excludes the other; as, "The father or the son died;""Either James or John will be there;" "He was neither pious nor prudent;" "Be industrious, otherwise you will come to want;" "Hasten to reform, else you will be ruined;" "Thomas is wiser than John;" "John is as learned as James."

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IV. CAUSAL CO-ORdinate Sentences. Two sentences may be so arranged that the latter may denote a cause or reason on the one hand, or an effort or inference on the other; as, The mercury has sunk, because (cause) the weather is cold;""The weather is cold, for (reason) the mercury has sunk;" "The land is fertile, therefore (effect) the crops are good;" "The crops are good, therefore (inference) the land is fertile;" "Wine makes him ill, on that account he drinks water;" "He intends to teach, therefore he learns French."

SUBORDINATE SENTENCES.

§ 538. Subordinate Sentences stand in the place of a Substantive, or of an Adjective, or of an Adverb, and therefore must be regarded as Substantives, or Adjectives, or Adverbs, expanded into a sentence. Accordingly, there are three classes of Subordinate sentences, viz., Substantive sentences, Adjective sentences, and Adverbial sentences.

I. SUBSTANTIVE SENTENCES are Substantives or Infinitives expanded into a sentence, and, like substantives, constitute the Subject, the Attribute, or the Object of a sentence. "He reported the death of the king," when expanded="He reported that the king had died."

1. A Substantive Sentence can be used as the subject of a proposition; as, "That the crops will be large is evident.”

2. A Substantive Sentence can be used as the predicate of a proposition; as, "His complaint was, that you deceived him.” 3. A Substantive Sentence can be used as the object of a verb; as, "He believes that you injured him."

4. A Substantive Sentence can stand in apposition to a sub

stantive in the principal sentence, whether in the nominative or objective case; as, "It is strange that you should think so." Here the sentence that you think so is in apposition to it, i. e., this thing.

5. The word that, used in these four instances, also serves to connect subordinate sentences which express a purpose; as, “I have come that I may see it with my own eyes;" and also sentences that express an effect or consequence; as, "The noise was such that I could not hear a word."

II. ADJECTIVE SENTENCES are Adjectives or Participles expanded into a sentence, and, like adjectives, they express a more exact definition of a Substantive or substantive Pronoun. They are usually introduced by relative pronouns; as, "A person who is ignorant of his own language=[a person ignorant of his own language] ought not to attempt to teach it;""The trees which I planted=[the trees planted by me] are flourishing." The adjective ignorant may be regarded as expanded into who is ignorant. Adjective sentences are called COMPLEX.

III. ADVERBIAL SENTENCES are Adverbs, Participles, or Substantives used adverbially, expanded into sentences, and, like adverbs, denote an adverbial object, i. e., such an object as does not complete the idea of the predicate, but merely defines it. Hence they express a more full explanation of the Place, Time, Reason, Manner.

1. Relation of Place; as, "He is not there, where you expected to meet him," "Whithersoever I go, I will remember you;" "I know not whence he came."

2. Relation of Time; as, "When any body asked him, he would not give an answer;" "While he was traveling, he received the intelligence."

3. Relation of Cause or Reason; as, "He is not liked, because he is presumptuous;" "The gentleman being introduced to me, I addressed him in English;" "He stays at home, as he expects a visit."

4. Conditional adverbial sentences are such as express a condition, and are introduced by the hypothetical conjunction if, or some equivalent; as, "I shall continue the work if I can." "Prove that to me, and I shall be satisfied." Here "prove that to me" is equivalent to "if you will prove that to me." The

conditional clause is sometimes expressed by a question; as, "Is any man pinched with want, charity shall relieve him."

As the conditioning clause usually precedes the conditioned, the former (the subordinate clause) is called the PROTASIS, Condition, and the latter (the principal clause) is called the APODOSIS, Conclusion. "If he visit Washington (Protasis) he will see the President" (Apodosis).

5. Relation of Manner; as, "He did that just as it ought to be done"=just right.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF PROPOSITIONS.

§ 539. Language consists of propositions, the forms of which are almost endless.

I. The imperfect proposition, or that in which no logical subject is conceived of or expressed; as, "It rains;" "it is warm." Here the mere event is affirmed, without any reference to the agency by which it is effected. The pronoun it is merely the grammatical subject. The addition of a logical subject is necessary to make the proposition a perfect one. This kind of proposition is employed in describing the state of the weather and other operations of nature.

II. The simple or naked proposition, or the perfect proposition in its most simple form, contains a subject as well as a predicate; as, "God exists." This kind of proposition involves the predicative combination only, and not the attributive or objective.

The subject is capable of variation. It may be a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective used substantively, but these may be considered merely as varieties of the substantive.

The mode or mood of the predication is capable of variation. It may be affirmative, negative, interrogative, imperative, or conditional. But, to avoid perplexity, we shall here consider only the positive forms of language.

The different species of this proposition, so far as the predicate is concerned, are as follows:

1. Where the predicate is a verb; as, "Man dies."

2. Where the predicate is an adjective; as, "Man is mortal.” 3. Where the predicate is a substantive; as, "Charles is a physician."

4. Where the predicate is a substantive with a preposition; as, "Paul was at Rome."

5. Where the predicate is an adverb; as, "The fire is out." III. The simple proposition, involving also the attributive combination, or the simple proposition with an enlarged subject; as, "The good man is safe."

This kind of proposition is capable of the variations given above of the simple proposition.

The different species of this proposition, so far as the attribute is concerned, are as follows:

1. Where the attribute is an adjective; as, "A beautiful woman is admired."

2. Where the attribute is a substantive in apposition; as, "Christ, the Savior, died."

3. Where the attribute is a substantive in the genitive case; as, "Cæsar's party was triumphant."

4. Where the attribute is a substantive with a preposition; as, "A friend to the cause is wanted."

IV. The simple proposition, involving also the objective combination, or the simple proposition with an enlarged predicate; as, "God created the world."

This kind of proposition is capable of the variations given above of the simple proposition.

The different species of this proposition, so far as the object is concerned, are as follows:

1. Involving the complementary object:

a. The passive object; as, "Alexander conquered Darius." b. The dative object; as, "John gave the book to Charles."

c. The genitive object; as, "He repents of his folly."

d. The factitive object; as, "They chose him king."

2. Involving the supplementary object:

a. The place; as, "Charles lives here," "John is gone to Boston."

b. The time; as, "John is now departing;" "He rose before sunrise."

c. The cause; as, "Socrates died from poison;" "She spoke from malice," "A bird is known from its feathers."

d. The manner; as, "He thinks so;" "He eats temperately." V. The simple proposition, involving also both the attribu