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tions against the Albigeois, and at the same time promised a general grant of indulgences and dispensations to all who should take arms in that holy cause. Having thus reduced those dissenting Christians to the same level in a religious estimation with the Turk and the Saracen, they let loose an infuriated multitude of fanatics against them; and the word Crusade,' which had hitherto signified only religious madness, was now extended to the more deliberate atrocity of sectarian persecution. Several monks and some prelates were the spiritual directors of this tempest; but the military leader was Simon, Count Simon de Montfort. de Montfort, a man like Cromwell, whose intrepidity, hypocrisy and ambition marked him for the hero of a holy war*. To irritate his ambition, the Pope artfully held out to him the earldom of Toulouse, as the recompense of his exertions in the service of the church. His hypocrisy was displayed and hardened by the seeming devotion with which he continually perpetrated the most revolting enormities, and his intrepidity was exercised by the resistance of the heretics. It would be a painful office, and of little profit, in the present prevalence of reason and of humanity, to pursue the frightful details of religious massacre †. It is sufficient to say, that after many conflicts and some variety of success, but no intermission of barbarity, the triumph rested with the Catholics. It was not, however, so complete as either to exterminate the rebels, or to place the promised sceptre in the hand of the persecutor. In the year 1218, Montfort was killed in battle before the walls of the city‡, which Innocent had vainly bestowed on him.

The contest was continued by succeeding Popes according to the prin ciples of Innocent; and eight years after the Council of Toulouse. death of Montfort, Louis VIII. king of France was engaged to gird on the sword of persecution. Another crusade was preached, and in 1228 a system of Inquisition was permanently established within the walls of Toulouse. In the same, or

*Hallam, Middle Ages. Simon de Montfort was descended, by an illegitimate branch, from Robert king of France. He was connected on his mother's side with the Earls of Leicester.

+ It was said in this war, when the Crusaders were on the point of storming Beziers, that some one inquired how the Catholic were to be distinguished from the heretical inhabitants in the massacre about to take place: 'Kill them all (replied Arnold, a Cistercian abbot, who happened to be present), God will know his own. 'Cædite-novit Dominus, qui sunt ejus.' His advice appears to have been followed, and about seven thou sand of all persuasions suffered.

The Life of Innocent III. apud Muratori, (which is more properly the History of Montfort's wars,) mentions many instances in which small bodies of heretics chose to be burnt, rather than return to the Catholic faith.

6

The recorded circumstances of his death seem well to illustrate one trait at least in his character. He was at matins (on June 25,) when he was informed that the enemy were in arms, and concealed in the fosse of the fortress. He instantly armed also, and hastened to church to hear mass. Mass was just begun, and he was engaged in earnest prayer, when news were brought him that the Toulousans had made a sally, and were attacking his machines- Let me finish the mass (he replied) and see the sacrament of our redemption.' Instantly afterwards another courier arrived, and said, Hasten to the succour; our men are pressed, and can hold out no longer.' I will not stir (he answered) until I have seen my Saviour.' But as soon as the priest had lifted up the Host, according to the usage, the Count, with his knees still on earth, and his hands raised to heaven, exclaimed, Nunc dimittis,' and he then added, Let us now go and die, if necessary, for Him who has died for us.' Accordingly he went forth and died. Yet, after all, it were too much to ascribe this conduct to pure hypocrisy; much of fanaticism was undoubtedly mixed with it; and when religious enthusiasm is united, as has too commonly happened, with religious hypocrisy, it is impossible even for the person possessed with them to distinguish their limits.

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the following year, a Council there assembled published decrees, which obliged laymen, even of the highest rank, to close their houses, cellars, forests, against the heretical fugitives, and to take all means to detect and bring them to trial; heretics voluntarily converted were compelled to wear certain crosses on their garments; those who should return to the church, under the influence of fear, were still to suffer imprisonment at the discretion of the bishop; all children of the age of twelve or fourteen were compelled by oath, not only to abjure every heresy, but to expose and denounce any which they should detect in others; and this code of bigotry was properly completed by a strict prohibition to all laymen to possess any copies of the Scriptures *.

Still the Count, who succeeded to the sceptre and to the moderation of Raymond, manifested not sufficient ardour in the Catholic cause, and it was not till the Archbishop of the city was formally associated with him in the office of destruction, that the work was thought to proceed with becoming rapidityf. At length, in 1253, the Count entered seriously on the hateful task; and from that moment the remnant of the Albigeois were consigned, without hope or mercy, to the eager hands of the inquisitors.

Innocent did not himself live to behold the success of his measures; and the cause which is assigned for his premature Death and Character death is the more remarkablet, as it arose out of of Innocent. the most triumphant exploit in his life. Since the humiliation of John, the crown of England had been considered by the Pope as a possession valuable to his ambition no less than to his avarice:

* Some of the statutes of this Council are worth citing, as they show not only how far the system, strictly speaking inquisitorial, was carried in that early age, but also how closely the laity at that time co-operated with the clergy for the unity of the church :'Statuimus itaque ut archiepiscopi et episcopi in singulis parochiis, tam in civitatibus quam extra, sacerdotem unum et duos vel tres laicos vel plures etiam, si opus fuerit, juramenti religione constringant, quod diligenter, fideliter et frequenter inquirant hæreticos in iisdem parochiis, domos singulas et cameras subterraneas aliqua suspicione notabiles perscrutando, et appensa seu adjuncta in iis tectis ædificia, seu quæcunque alia latibula (quæ omnia destrui præcipimus) perquirendo repererint hæreticos, credentes, fau tores et receptatores seu defensores eorum, &c. Solliciti etiam sint domini terrarum circa inquisitionem hæreticorum, in villis, domibus et nemoribus faciendam; et circa hujusmodi appensa, adjuncta, seu subterranea latibula destruenda. Statuimus igitur ut quicunque in terra permittat scienter morari hæreticum .... et fuerit inde confessus et convictus, amittat in perpetuum totam suam terram, et corpus suum sit in manu domini ad faciendum inde quod debebit. Illam domum in qua fuerit inventus hæreticus diruendam decernimus; et locus sive fundus ipse confiscetur,' &c.-See Spicileg. Dacherii (vol. ii. p. 621. Edit. Paris.) under the head, Varia Galliæ Concilia.'

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We read in Matthew Paris, that about the year 1236, the Fratres Predicatores and other divines were still making great exertions for the conversion of the misbelievers. One of those preachers, named Robert, was so powerful in prostrating an adversary as to have obtained the name of Malleus Hæreticorum-the Hammer of Heretics. Nor was this only meant in a spiritual sense, since there were many of both sexes whom, being unable to convert, he caused to be burnt to death; so that within two or three months there were about fifty persons whom he occasioned either to be burnt or buried alive.'— Matth. Paris, Henric. III., ad an. 1236. We should add, however, for the honour of pontifical humanity, that only two years afterwards the cruelties of Robert were arrested by an order from Rome, and the persecutor (who, by the way, had previously been a heretic) was himself convicted of some less equivocal offences, and imprisoned for life.

Some writers make no mention of this circumstance, but merely assert that Innocent died rather suddenly, while on his way to reconcile some differences between the Pisans and Genoese, which impeded his grand crusading projects.-See the Chron. of Richardus de S. Germano, and of Urspergensis Abbas. ap. Pagi, Vit. Innoc. III. Sect. 104. It is certain that his death took place at Perugia, on July 16, 1216, after a reign of eighteen years and six months.

and when, on the deposition of John, Louis of France was proclaimed, and actually proceeded to occupy the country in spite of the Pontiff's determined opposition, Innocent was indignant at the affront and the injury. He preached a sermon on some public occasion, and selected for his text, Even say thou, the sword, the sword is drawn-for the slaughter it is furbished*. In the course of his passionate harangue he pronounced a solemn sentence of excommunication against Louis and his followers; and immediately afterwards, as it is said, while in the act of dictating to his secretary some very harsh censures against Philippe and his kingdom, he was seized by that fatal fever, which was ordained, perhaps, to prevent some new enterprise of warfare and desolation.

If we would reconcile the lofty panegyrics with the violent vituperation, which are alike bestowed upon the name of Innocent III., we must first distinguish his private from his public character, and next reflect how different and even opposite are the principles on which the latter has, in different ages, been judged. The very same exploits which would naturally call forth loud approbation from the Catholic historians of those days, nay, from some perhaps even at this moment, are made the subjects of severe censure by Protestant writers. This difference is less properly historical than moral. It does not respect the reality of the questionable acts ascribed to him, but only the light in which we are bound to regard them. But in respect to the private qualities of Innocent there is no ground for such diversity; and that they were great and noble is attested by most of his biographers. That he was gifted with extraordinary talents that he was a profound canonist, and generally conversant with the learning of his time-that he was frequent in charitable offices, and generous in the distribution of his personal revenues-that his moral conduct was without reproach, and that he was sometimes not untouched by sentiments of piety, is clear from the evidence of contemporary authors and of his own writings. But great personal virtues are perfectly consistent with great public crimes; and it is a truth which leads to melancholy reflection, that some of the heaviest evils which have ever been inflicted upon churches and nations, have proceeded from the weak or even wicked policy of men of immaculate private characters.

Such was Innocent III.; charitable to the poor who surrounded his palace, steeled against the wretch who deviated from his faith-generous in the profusion of his private expenditure, avaricious in the exactions which he levied for the apostolical treasury-humanet in his mere social relations, merciless in the execution of his ecclesiastical projects-pious in the expressions of internal devotion, impious and blasphemous in his repeated profanation of the name of God and of the cross of Christ. Again if we confine our retrospect to the public acts of this Pontiff, we observe that they bear, perhaps without any excepPolicy of Innocent. tion, the same stamp-that of a temporal and worldly policy. Innocent subjected the civil authority of the Imperial Prefect to his own. He extended, with great diligence, the boundaries of the Ecclesiastical States. He found means to control a great portion of the secular power of Europe, so that he might hold it at

Ezekiel, c. xxi. v. 28.

Simon de Montfort killed Peter of Arragon in battle, and took his son prisoner. The widow, unable to prevail with Montfort for the release of the boy, supplicated the interference of Innocent. There is no proof that his policy was, in this matter, concerned on either side, so he commanded the liberation of the captive, and for once humanity had its triumph.

his disposal; whether it was his will to overthrow a pretender, or to depose a king, or to extinguish a heresy. For the accomplishment of his most important objects his final and most confident appeal was invariably made to the material sword. Again: as if it were little to submit the consciences of men to the dominion of the Holy See, he endeavoured to comprehend in its grasp their property also. Heretofore the Popes had been contented with the exercise and the rewards of a spiritual tyranny-they had been satisfied with the obedience, the ecclesiastical fidelity, the ghostly services of their clergy; but Innocent opened a more direct and, as he thought, a more solid path to power. He availed himself of the pretext of the crusades to levy pecuniary contributions, immediately on the clergy, and, through the clergy, on the people. This was the most essential change which he introduced into the system of the church. From this epoch its history takes another, and we need not hesitate to say, a lower character; and though this was not instantly developed, but awaited the profligacy of Avignon, and the vices and necessities of the Schism, to bring it to full perfection, still it was from this crisis that the revolution must be dated; here originated that gradual substitution of worldly objects and vulgar motives for the splendour of spiritual pretension, which led, through a succession of pitiful disputes and sordid usurpations, to mere naked avarice and avowed and shameless venality.

In the comparison which we might here be tempted to draw between Innocent III. and the greatest among his predecessors, there is perhaps no point on which the preference could be refused to Gregory. Both availed themselves of the divisions of the empire; but the favourable circumstances which Innocent found, Gregory in a great measure created. The design of universal monarchy, which was carried so far into execution by the one, was conceived and transmitted to him by the other. With Innocent the liberation of the Holy Sepulchre was made the excuse for pecuniary exactions; with Gregory it was the lofty aspiration of erring magnanimity, earnest, and attended by a determination to devote his repose and person to the cause which he deemed holy. In the treatment of heretical delinquency, the one was moderate* beyond the principles of his age and the passions of his clergy; the other urged the course and heated the rage of persecution, and by his perversion of the crusading frenzy into that channel, identified in the popular hatred dissent with infidelity, and established the law of vengeance, and multiplied the crimes of his posterity. And after all, how severely soever we may condemn the means which have created it, there is something of majesty and magnificence in the character of a spiritual despotism—an invisible power which enthrals mankind without the aid of physical force, and even in defiance of it; which humbles the mightiest sceptre, and blunts the sharpest sword by a menace or a censure; a power mysterious and undefinable, swaying the human race by the name the much-abused name-of religion. If we look, indeed, to its origin, it is only an empire over man's ignorance and credulity. Still it is the empire of intellect; and as such it stands on loftier ground than that worldly fabric which employed the ambition of Innocent; the mere temporal sovereignty of arms and opulence, supported by corruption and massacre.

*It is true, that Gregory offered to Sweno, King of Denmark, a province occupied by heretics. But in this matter his temporal ambition was probably more interested than his ecclesiastical bigotry.

CHAPTER XIX.

The History of Monachism.

(1.)Origin of Monachism-Early instance of the monastic spirit in the east-Pliny the philosopher -The Therapeutæ or Essenes-The Ascetics-their real character and origin-The earliest Christian hermits-dated from the Decian or Diocletian persecutions-Cœnobites. Pachomius and St. Anthony-originated in Egypt-account of the monks of Egypt-Basilius of Caesarea-his order and rule-his institution of a vow questionable-Monasteries encouraged by the fathers of the fourth and fifteenth ages-from what motives-Vow of celibacy-Restrictions of admission into monastic order-Original monks were laymen-Comparative fanaticism of the east and westSeverity of discipline in the west-motives and inducements to it-contrasted with the Oriental practice-Establishment of nunneries in the east. (II.) Institution of Monachism in the West→→→ St. Athanasius-Martin of Tours-Most ancient rule of the western monasteries-their probable paucity and poverty-Benedict of Nursia-his order, and reasonable rule, and object-Foundation of Monte Cassino-France-St. Columban-Ravages of the Lombards and Danes-Reform by Benedict of Aniane-The order of Cluni-its origin, rise, and reputation-its attachment to papacy and its prosperity-The order of Citeaux-date of its foundation-Dependent Abbey of Clairvaux -St. Bernard-its progress and decline-Order of the Chartreux. (III.) Canons Regular and Secular-Order of St. Augustin-Rule of Chrodegangus-Rule of Aix-la-Chapelle-subsequent reforms. (IV.) Connexion between the monasteries and the Pope-mutual services. The Military orders(1.) The Knights of the Hospital-origin of their institution-their discipline and character(2.) Knights Templar-their origin and object-(3.) The Teutonic order-its establishment and prosperity. (V.) The Mendicant orders-causes of their rise and great progress—(1.) St. Dominic -his exertions and designs-(2.) St. Francis and his followers-compared with the Dominicans -apparent assimilation-essential differences-disputes of the Franciscans with the Popes, and among themselves-Inquisitorial office of the Dominicans, their learning and influence-quarrels with the Doctors of Paris-Austerity of the Franciscans-the Fratricilli-(3.) The Carmelitestheir professed origin―(4.) Hermits of St. Augustin-Privileges of these four orders. (VI.) Various establishments of Nuns-their usual offices and character-General remarks-The three grand orders of the Western Church (suited to the ages in which they severally appeared and flourished) -The Jesuits-The Monastic system one of perpetual reformation-thus alone it survived so long-its merits and advantages-The bodily labour of the Monks-their charitable and hospitable offices-real piety to be found among them-superintendence of education, and means of learning preserved by them-limits to their utility-their frequent alliance with superstition-their early dependence on the Bishops-gradual exemption, and final subjection to the Pope-Their profits and opulence, and means of amassing it-Luther a mendicant.

Ir is not through inadvertence, nor any blindness to the magnitude and importance of the subject, that a particular account of the monastic system has been so long deferred. We have had frequent occasion to recognize its existence and its influence on the general character of the Church; and it was reasonable perhaps to expect some earlier notice of its origin and progress. But as it is absolutely necessary for the correct comprehension of ecclesiastical history, that the scheme of monachism be understood aright; as that end could scarcely be accomplished, unless by presenting the entire institution at a single view; and as it is much more instructive, in the order of historical composition, to retrace some steps and to revisit such periods as have been examined imperfectly, rather than to anticipate events and ages which are remote and wholly unexplored-for these reasons we have abstained from a partial or premature treatment of this extensive subject. Moreover, when we consider the successive mutations which have perpetually varied the aspect of monasticism, it will appear, perhaps, that the present, as being the epoch of its latest change, is the moment most proper for the delineation of the whole structure. That latest change (we speak only of changes preceding the Reformation) was the institution of the Mendicant Ordersan event which arose out of the ministry of St. Dominic, and immediately followed the death of Innocent III. This appendage completed the

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