the monastic practice was instantly diffused throughout Italy; and at Milan especially, it obtained a powerful support in the patronage of Ambrose. It speedily extended itself to France; and the labours of Martin of Tours, which were zealously directed to its diffusion, received at least this posthumous recompense, that nearly two thousand holy disciples assembled to do honour to his obsequies. The establishments, founded by Cassian at Marseilles, and in the neighbouring islands, were immediately thronged with brethren obedient to his Rule; and Honoratus, bishop of Arles, bears testimony (about the year 430) to the existence of religious old men in the isle of Lerinus, who lived in separate cells, and represented in Gaul the Fathers of Egypt *.' We may here observe, that, as in the wide wildernesses of the East, a secluded rock, or an unfrequented oasis-a spot cut off by the circumfluous Nile, or breaking the influx of the river into the sea-as such were the places usually selected by the original recluses, so their earliest imitators in the West, under different circumstances of soil and climate, adhered to the ancient preference for insular retirement. The islands of Dalmatia †, and others scattered along the coasts of the Adriatic, were peopled with holy inhabitants. Along the western shores of Italy ‡, *The following are some of the passages which bear on this subject. St. Jerome, speaking of the time of Athanasius's visit to Rome, says, (in Epist. 16, ad Principiam Virginem,) Nulla eo tempore nobilium fœminarum noverat Romæ propositum Monachorum, nec audebat, propter rei novitatem, ignominiosum (ut tunc putabatur) et vile in populis nomen assumere. Hæc (Marcella) ab Alexandrinis prius sacerdotibus Papaque Athanasio, et postea Petro, vitam B. Antonii adhuc tunc viventis, Monasteriorumque in Thebaide Pachumii et Virginum ac Viduarum didicit disciplinam, nec erubuit profiteri quod Christo placere agnoverat.' Soon afterwards, when Jerome was at Rome, fuerunt tam crebra Virginum Monacharumque innumerabilis multitudo, ut pia frequentia serventium Deo, quod prius ignominiæ fuerat, esset postea gloriæ.' So also Augustin (De Morib. Eccles. c. 33) Romæ etiam plura Monasteria cognovit, in quibus singuli gravitate atque prudentia et divina scientia pollentes, cæteris secum habitantibus præerant Christiana caritate, sanctitate et libertate viventibus.' And the same Father (Confess., lib. viii. c. 6) attests, on the authority of one Pontitianus, that there existed at Milan Monasterium plenum bonis Fratribus, extra urbis moenia sub Ambrosio nutritore.' Sulp. Severus mentions the success of St. Martin to have been so great, 'ut ad exequias ejus monachorum fere duo millia convenisse dicantur. Specialis Martini gloria, cujus exemplo in Domini servitute stirpe tanta fructificaverat.' 6 Jerome, Epist. xxxv., ad Heliodorum. Quumque crederet quotidie aut ad Ægypti Monasteria pergere, aut Mesopotamia invisere choros, aut certe insularum Dalmatia solitudines occupare,' &c. See Marsham's Пgoruλaior, in Dugd. Monast. Respecting the monks of the isles of Gorgonia and Capraria, Rutilius Numatianus composed some verses, (in the year 416,) which have more of elegance (says Marsham) than of Christianity. The following are some of them : from Calabria, throughout the islets of the Tuscan Sea, the chaunts of monastic devotion everywhere resounded, as well as at Lerinus and the Stochades, consecrated by the piety of Cassian. Such, in the first instance, were the favourite nurseries of the new institution. There is even reason to believe, that the rocks on the southern coast of Italy furnished the seeds of monachism to the churches of Carthage; and thus was transmitted, after the revolution of half a century, to the more Western Africans, the boon which their brethren of Egypt had first presented to the Christian world. Prevalence and character of It is, indeed, unquestionable, that towards the end of the fourth, but especially during the fifth century, the monastic practice obtained universal prevalence, and became almost co-extensive with the belief in Christ. And on this circumstance there is one observation which it is proper to offer, which has indeed been made before, though in a somewhat different spirit, by Roman Catholic writers-that the period, which was marked by this great religious innovation, was the same in which the religion itself seemed in imminent danger, at least throughout the Western provinces, of utter extirpation. This was the very crisis in which the pagan inundation from the North spread itself most fiercely and fatally, and while it overthrew the bulwarks of the empire, menaced, at the same time, the foundations of the Faith. That the monastic institution was designedly interposed by Providence, in order to stay that wasting calamity, and supply new means of defence to His fainting soldiers, is a vain and even a presumptuous supposition. But it would equally be unjust to assert, that establishments of pious men, associated for religious purposes, were without their use in exciting respect in the enemy, and confidence in the Christian. Still less can we hesitate to believe, that they were the means of relieving much individual misery; that during the overthrow of justice and humanity, they derived power, as well as protection, from the name of God, and from the trust which they reposed in him; that their power was generally exerted for good purposes; and that their gates were thrown open to multitudes, who, in those days of universal desolation, could hope for no other refuge. The rule commonly professed by the original Western monasteries was unquestionably that of St. Basil; and though it was not observed with any rigid uniformity, there was probably no material variation either in constitution or discipline throughout the whole extent of Christendom, excepting such as naturally resulted from the different climate, morals, and temperament of its inhabitants. At least, there was no distinction in order or dignity all were united by one common appellation, extending from the deserts of Pontus to the green valleys of Ireland; and the monks of those days were sufficiently separated from the rest of mankind, and sufficiently disengaged from secular pursuits, to dispense with the baser Many other islands are mentioned as having been thus consecrated, (or desecrated— as the describer might be an ecclesiastical annalist, or a pagan poet). The island Barbara, situated above the conflux of the Rhone and the Arar, boasted to have been one of the most ancient nurseries of the Holy Institution; and Jerome, in an epistle to Heliodorus, speaks of Insulas et totum Etruscum mare Volscorumque provinciam, et reconditos curvorum littorum sinus, in quibus monachorum consistebant Chori.' Mabillon, Pref. in Aun. Bened. Sæc. i. Giannone's View of the Origin of the Monastic Life in the West (Stor. di Nap., lib. ii., cap. 8.) does not appear to be marked by the accuracy and perspicuity usual to that excellent historian. See motives to which they were afterwards reduced, of partial interest and rivalry. Some wealth, indeed, began already to flow into that chanuel; but the still remaining prevalence of hermits, who dwelt among the mountains in unsocial and independent seclusion, very clearly proves, that the more attractive system of the Cœnobites had not hitherto attained any luxurious refinement. No large territorial endowments had yet been attached to religious houses, and their support was chiefly derived from individual charity or superstition. And during the course of the fifth century the progression of monachism was probably more popular, and certainly more profitable, among Eastern nations, than it had yet become on this side of the Adriatic. But in the following age a more determined character was given to that profession. A hermit named Benedict, a na tive of Nursia in the diocese of Rome, instituted, Benedict of Nursia. about the year 529, an entirely new order, and imposed a rule, which is still extant, for its perpetual observance. No permanent and popular institution has ever yet existed, however in its abuse it have set sense and reason at defiance, which has not some pretension to virtue or wisdom, and usually much of the substance of both, in its origin and its infancy. It was thus with the order of St. Benedict. That celebrated rule, which in after ages enslaved the devout and demoralized the Church-which became a sign and a watchword for the satellites of Papacy-was designed for purposes which, at the time of its promulgation, might seem truly Christian. Its objects were to form a monastic body, which under a milder discipline should possess a more solid establishment and more regular manners, than such as then existed; and also to ensure for those, who should become members of it, a holy and peaceful life, so divided between prayer, and study, and labour, as to comprehend the practical duties of religious education. Such was the simple foundation, on which all the riches, and luxury, and power, and profligacy of the Benedictines have been unnaturally piled up-consequences, which were entirely unforeseen by him who founded, and by those who immediately embraced, and by those who first protected *, a pious and useful institution. It is proper to confirm these observations by some account of what is, perhaps, the most celebrated monument of ecclesiastical antiquity. The Rule of St. Be- The Rule of St. Benedict. nedict † is introduced by a quadruple division of those who professed the monastic life. The first class was composed of the Cœnobites or Regular Monks; the second, of the Anchorets or Hermits, to whom he assigns even superior perfection; the third, of the Sarabaites, whom he describes as living without any rule, either alone or in small societies, according to their inclination; the fourth, of Gyrovagi or Vagabonds, a dissolute and degraded body. His regulations for the divine offices were formed, in a great measure, on the practice already described of the Monks of Egypt. Two hours after midnight they were aroused to vigils, on which occasion twelve psalms were chaunted, and certain lessons from the Scriptures read or recited. At day-break the matins, a service little differing from the preceding, were performed; Gregory the Great was a zealous patron of this institution, and so approved the moderation of the rule, that he has not escaped the suspicion of being its author. It is given at length by Hospinian.-De Origine Monachatus, lib. iv. cap. v. and the intervening space, which in winter was long and tedious, was employed in learning the Psalms by heart*, or in meditating on their sense, or in some other necessary study. But besides these and the other public services, the duty of private or mental ́prayer was recognized in the Institutions of St. Benedict, and regulations were imposed which, while they restricted its duration, proposed to purify and spiritualize its character. To the duty of prayer the holy legislator added those of manual labour and reading. The summer's day was so divided, that seven hours were destined to the former occupation, and two at least to the latter t. And should it so happen, (he observes,) that his disciples be compelled to gather their harvests with their own hands, let not that be any matter of complaint with them; since it is then that they are indeed monks, when they live by their own handy-work, as did our fathers and the apostles. During the winter season the hours of labour were altered, but not abridged; and those of study seem to have been somewhat increased, at least during Lent. The sabbath' was entirely devoted to reading and prayer. Those whose work was allotted at places too remote from the Monastery to admit of their return to the appointed services, bent their knees on the spot and repeated their prayers at the canonical hours. The description of labour was not left to the choice of the individual, but imposed by the Superior. Thus if any possessed any trade or craft, he could not exercise it, except by permission of the Abbot. If anything were sold, the whole value was carefully appropriated to the common fund; and it was further directed, that the price should be somewhat lower than that demanded by secular artizans for the same objects to the end that God might be glorified in all things.' In respect to abstinence, the Rule of St. Benedict ordained not any of those pernicious austerities, which were sometimes practised by his followers. Notwithstanding the indulgence of a small quantity of wine to those whose imperfect nature might require it, it prescribed a system of rigid temperance, which among those original Cœnobites was well enforced by their poverty-but it contains no injunction of fasting or mortification. Those vain and superstitious practices, the fruits of mingled enthusiasm and indolence, scarcely gained any prevalence in the monasteries of the West, until increasing wealth dispensed with the necessity of daily labour. The monks slept in the same dormitory, in which a lamp was kept constantly burning, and strict silence was imposed. Even in the day, they spake rarely; and every expression partaking of levity, and calculated at all to disturb the seriousness of the community-every word that was irrelevant to its objects and uses-was absolutely prohibited within the convent walls. The Rule makes no mention of any In England the establishment of Monachism was contemporary with that of Christianity. Augustinus, Monasterii Regulis eruditus, instituit conversationem, quæ initio nascentis ecclesiæ fuit patribus nostris, quibus omnia erant communia-Monas terium fecit non longe a Doroverniensi Civitate, &c. Bede, lib. i. c. xxii. + It was ordained, that if any one were unable to read or meditate, some other occupation should be imposed on him. But as Latin, the language of religious study, was at that time the vulgar tongue, at least one great impediment to religious instruction, which was so powerful in after ages, did not then exist. In this matter St. Benedict relaxed from the rigour of the Eastern observance; but he did so with reluctance, regretting the necessary imperfection of a system, which he was compelled to accommodate to the gradually decreasing vigour of the human frame. Even Fleury (see his Eighth Discourse) does not disdain to combat this notion. sort of recreation; but it enjoins that, every evening after supper, while the brothers are still assembled, one among them shall read aloud passages from the Lives of the Saints, or some other book of edification. As the Abbot was then chosen by the whole society without regard to any other consideration than personal merit, so in the government of the monastery he was bound to consult the senior brethren on lesser matters, and the whole body on the more important contingencies-it was ordained, however, that after he had taken such counsel, the final decision should rest entirely with himself. Obedience was the vow and obligation of the others. The form prescribed for the reception of Novices was not such as to encourage a lukewarm candidate. In the first instance, he was compelled to stand for four or five days before the gates, supplicating only for admission. If he persevered, he was received first into the Chamber of Strangers-then into that of Novices. An ancient brother was then commissioned to examine his vocation, and explain to him how rude and difficult was the path to heaven. After a probation of two months the Rule was read to him; again, after six other months; and a third time, at the end of the year. If he still persisted, he was received, and made profession in the Oratory before the whole community. And we should remark, that that profession was confined to three subjects-perseverance in the monastic life; correction of moral delinquencies; and obedience *. Offences committed by the brethren were punished, according to their enormity, by censure, excommunication, or corporal inflictions; expulsion was reserved for those deemed incorrigible. Nevertheless even then the gate was not closed against repentance; and the repudiated member was re-admitted, on the promise of amendment, even for the third time. Such in substance was the Rule of St. Benedict; and even the very faint delineation here presented may suffice to give some insight into the real character of the original monasteries. Perhaps too it may serve to allay the bitterness, which we sometimes are too apt to entertain against the founders and advocates of the system, by showing, that though unscriptural in its principle and pernicious in its abuse, it was yet instituted not without some wisdom and foresight; and was calculated to confer no inconsiderable blessings on those ages in which it first arose. The monastery of Monte Cassino, which became afterwards so celebrated in Papal History, was the noblest, though not perhaps the earliest, monument Progress of the Institution. of St. Benedict's exertions. The moment was favourable to his under taking; and his name and his Rule were presently adopted and obeyed throughout the greater part of Italy. By St. Maur, his disciple and associate, an institution on the same principle was immediately † introduced into France, and became the fruitful parent of dependent establishments. Somewhat later in the same century, St. Columban propounded in Britain a rule resembling in many respects that of St. Benedict, but surpassing it in severity; and it was propagated with some success on the Continent. But it is the opinion of the most learned writers, that the monasteries, which at first followed it, yielded All those ancient brothers were laymen. It does not appear that even St. Benedict himself held any rank in the clergy. + About the year 542. It was destroyed by the Danes, but subsequently re-established about the year 934, by the Bishop of Limoges. A great number of abbeys presently grew up under its shadow.-Histoire des Ordres Monastiques. |