Chap. XIX.] A HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. REESE THE UNIVERSITY expense of the secular clergy, but more usually by contributions from the laity. In earlier ages, the profusion of kings and nobles abundantly satiated the avarice of every department of the church; but when s spirit gradually expired, and new Orders were still everywhere starting A professing poverty, and clamorous for wealth, it became necessary to open new resources for their nourishment. These were easily discovered in the fruitfulness of superstition. Purgatory presently assumed a more definite shape; and it was no difficult office for the priests, who created it, to conduct its administration and economy. Their power over the concerns of that state was believed on the same authority, which had established its existence. This grand invention, with the devices of masses, indulgences, &c., which flowed from it, extended its influence from the highest even to the lowest classes of the people; so that through these means every condition of society became tributary to the church. The monks enjoyed a very great share in the profits of this imposture. During the tenth and eleventh centuries, the reputation to which they had already risen was so much augmented by the foundation and name of Cluni, that some are disposed to date their triumph over the secular clergy from this period * -it is certain that the attention of churchmen was from this time more anxiously directed to their temporalities † than heretofore. . . After the institution of the Mendicants, the lucrative ‡ departments of the profession were chiefly committed to their superintendence; and it was especially through their heedless abuse of favours, as heedlessly lavished on them by a succession of necessitous Popes, and most so through the public and confessed venality of indulgences, that the deformities of the papal system became generally acknowledged and execrated. These were the scandals which, more than any of its pretensions and impostures, awakened the indignation of mankind. And thus it came to pass, in the fulness of time, that out of the bosom of that very order which had been most instrumental in supporting papal power, and corrupting the very corruptions of religion, the voice of Providence was pleased to call forth the great restorer of his holy church. While the Benedictines were reposing in their luxurious edifices-while the Mendicants were openly prostituting for gold the offices and pretended solaces of religion, the progress of knowledge and the increase of corruption prepared the field of triumph for the Saxon reformer. It is probable that they far surpassed the secular clergy of this time in austerity and even in real piety of life, which was not, indeed, any very difficult triumph. It is certain that they now began to apply not only to study, but to business, which the seculars almost equally neglected. Hence the succession of five monks, who, during the eleventh age, governed the Church for fifty years; and to whom Mosheim, in his unqualified hatred for everything monastic, attributes almost all its sins. + Giannone (Stor. Nap., lib. vii., cap. v.) remarks, that censures and excommunications-those spiritual weapons which hitherto had been usually employed for the correction of sin-were from this period chiefly directed against persons who plundered or alienated the property of the Church. It is worthy of remark that the French, in pursuance of their constant determination to preserve themselves from pure papacy, strongly discouraged the acquisition of property in France by the Mendicants, fairly objecting to them their unequivocal vow of poverty. CHAPTER XX. History of the Popes, from the Death of Innocent III. to that of The ardour of the Popes for Crusades-its motives and policy-Honorius III.-Frederic's vow to take the cross, and procrastination-Gregory IX.-his Coronation-he excommunicates the Emperor-who thus departs for Palestine-Gregory impedes his success, and invades his dominions-their subsequent disputes-Innocent IV.-his previous friendship with Frederic-Council of Lyong-various charges urged against Frederic-Innocent deposes Frederic and appoints his successor, on his own papal authority-Civil war in Germany-in Italy-death of Frederic-his character and conduct-his rigorous Decree against Heretics-Observations-Other reasons alleged to justify his deposition—this dispute compared with that between Gregory VII. and Henry-Taxes levied by the Pope on the Clergy-Crusade against the Emperor-Exaltation of Innocent-his visit to Italy and intrigues-his death-his qualities as a statesman-as a churchman-expression of the Sultan of Egypt-Alexander IV.-Urban IV.-Clement IV.-Introduction of Charles d'Anjou to the throne of Naples-Gregory X.-his piety, and other merits-Second Council of Lyons-Vain preparations for another Crusade-Death of Gregory-Objects of Nicholas II.-Martin IV.-Senator of Rome-Nicholas IV. diligent against Heresy-Pietro di Morone or Celestine V.-circumstances of his elevation-his previous life and habits-his singular incapacity-disaffection among the higher Clergy-his discontent and meditations-his resignationBoniface VIII.-his excessive ambition and insolence-on the decline of the papal power-his temporal pretensions-Sardinia, Corsica, Scotland, Hungary-Recognition of Albert King of the Romans and act of his submission - Philip the Fair-The Gallican Church-origin of its liberties - Differences between Boniface and Philip-Bull Clericis Laicos-its substance and subsequent interpretation-Affairs of the Bishop of Parmiers-Bull Ausculta Fili-burnt by Philip-Conduct of the French Nobles-of the Clergy-of Boniface-Bull Unam Sanctam—other violent proceedings-Moderation of Philip-further insolence of the Pope-Philip's appeal to a General Council -William of Nogaret-Personal assault on Boniface-his behaviour and the circumstances of his death. THE Church of Rome had now so habitually stained herself with blood, as to be callous to the common feelings of nature, and insensible to the miseries of mankind. For more than a century she had employed her power in promoting the destruction of human life, by the most senseless expeditions: and as the ruinousness and vanity of the Crusades became more manifest, she seemed to redouble her exertions to renew and perpetuate them; for she thrived by contributions levied for this purpose, and by the property which was thus thrown under ecclesiastical protection; and she gathered strength through the weakness of monarchs, and the superstition of their subjects. Again, after Innocent had succeeded in an additional outrage upon humanity and reason, by converting the machine, which had been intended against the enemies of Christ, into an engine of domestic persecution and torture, it became more than ever the interest of the pope to keep alive a spirit, which might so easily be made to deviate into arbitrary channels. And thus the zeal for Crusades, which inflamed the breast of Innocent, passed without any diminution into those of his successors. Moreover, it is well known how earnestly the holy See supported the interests of Frederic II. against Otho IV., as long as the former was the weaker party, and how zealously it began to raise enemies against him, as soon as he became powerful; while the industry with which it renewed and prolonged the contests between the Guelphs and the Ghibelines-contests which lacerated the vitals of Italy-furnishes melancholy proof, that its interests were even at this time associated with every principle that is subversive of peace and baneful to society; and that it pursued those interests with callous, persevering, uncompromising obduracy. Innocent III. was succeeded by Honorius III., a native of Rome, whọ for four years had been governor of Palermo under Frederic II.; but the remembrance of that connexion was easily thrown off, as soon as he rose from the condition of a subject to Honorius III. that of a rival. Frederic had made a solemn vow to Innocent, to engage without loss of time in a new crusade; and on his coronation at Rome, in 1220, he renewed that promise with still greater solemnity to Honorius. In the year following, instead of proceeding on his expedition, he appears to have appointed, on his own authority, to some vacant see; in virtue, as he maintained, of his royal right; in violation, as the pope asserted, of the liberties of the church. During the time consumed in this dispute, Damietta fell into the power of the Mahometans. In the year 1223, at a council held at Terentino in Campania, the Emperor renewed his oath to depart, and that within the space of two years; and to give earnest of his sincerity, he espoused the daughter of John of Brienne, King of Jerusalem. In the year following, that he might atone to the church for his continued delay, and evince to her the sincerity of his affection, he published some savage constitutions against heretics, which we shall presently notice. At the same time, in a long letter to the Pope, he complained of the general indifference to the cause of the Crusades, which then unfortunately prevailed throughout Europe. Some disputes with the Lombards formed the next excuse for his delay; and in 1227 Honorius died, still pressing the departure of the monarch, and still pressing it in vain. Accession of Gregory IX., who was nephew of Innocent III., was immediately raised to the pontifical chair, with loud and unanimous acclamation. On the day of his coronation he proceeded to St. Peter's, accompanied by several prelates, and assumed the pallium according to custom; and after having said mass he marched to the palace of the Lateran, covered with gold and jewels. On Easter Day, he celebrated mass solemnly at Sta. Maria Maggiore, and returned with a crown on his head. On Monday, having said mass at St. Peter's, he returned wearing two crowns, mounted on a horse richly caparisoned, and surrounded by Cardinals clothed in purple, and a numerous clergy †. The streets were spread with tapestry, inlaid with gold and silver, the noblest productions of Egypt, and the most brilliant colours of India, and perfumed with various aromatic odours. The people chaunted aloud Kyrie eleison, and their songs of joy were accompanied by the sound of trumpets. The judges and the officers shone in gilded habits and caps of silk. The Greeks and the Jews celebrated the praises of the Pope, each in his own language; a countless multitude marched before him carrying palms and flowers; and the sena *See Fleury, Hist. Ecel. 1. 78, sect. 65, where a part of the letter is quoted. The actual restitution of the territories of the Countess Matilda to the Roman See, is by some ascribed to this Pontificate. Raynaldus (ann. 1221, Num. 29) asserts, that the imperial diploma existed in the Liber Censuum of the Vatican library-apud Pagi. Vit, Honor. iii. Sect. xxxi. This description is very faintly copied from a life of Gregory IX. cited by Odoricus Raynaldus; the following is a specimen: Divinis missarum officiis reverenter expletis duplici diademate coronatus sub fulgoris specie in Cherubini transfiguratur aspectum, inter purpuratam venerabilium Cardinalium, Clericorum et Prælatorum comititivam innumeram, insignibus papalibus præcedentibus, equo in phaleris pretiosis evectus, per almæ Urbis miranda monia Pater Urbis et Orbis deducitur admirandus. Hinc cantica concrepant, etc. etc. See Pagi, Vit. Gregor. ix., s. iii. Fleury 1.79. s. 31. There seems no reason to believe, that these demonstrations of joy or ebullitions of adulation exceeded the customary parade of the thirteenth century. tors and prefect of Rome were on foot at his side, holding his bridle-and thus was he conducted to the palace of the Lateran. The first and immediate act of a pontificate so gorgeously undertaken, was to urge the renewal of the Crusades, both by persuasion and menace, at the various courts of Europe. The forces of Frederic were already collected at Otranto, and, if we are to believe some writers*, the Emperor did actually embark, and proceed on his destination as far as the narrow sea between the Morea and Crete, when a dangerous indisposition obliged him to return. It is at least certain, that he once more deferred the moment of his final departure. The Pope was infuriated; he treated the story of illness as an empty pretence, and without waiting or asking for excuse or explanation, instantly excommunicated the Emperor. This took place on the 29th of September, within six months from his elevation to the See; and the sword of discord, which was drawn on that day, had no secure or lasting interval of rest, until the deposition, or rather the death of Frederic. The Emperor wrote several papers in his justification, and among them a letter to Henry III. of England, containing much severe and just reproach against the Roman Church. The Roman Church (such was the substance of his upbraiding) so burns with avarice that, as the ecclesiastical revenues do not content it, it is not ashamed to despoil sovereign Princes and make them tributary. You have a very touching example in your father King John; you have that also of the Count of Toulouse, and so many other princes whose kingdoms it holds under interdict, until it has reduced them to similar servitude. I speak not of the simonies, the unheard-of exactions, which it exercises over the clergy, the manifest or cloaked usuries with which it infects the whole world. In the mean time, these insatiable leeches use honied discourses, saying that the Court of Rome is the Church, our mother and nurse, while it is our stepmother and the source of every evil. It is known by its fruits. It sends on every side legates with power to punish, to suspend, to excommunicate; not to diffuse the word of God, but to amass money, and reap that which they have not sown †. And so they pillage churches, monasteries and other places of religion, which our fathers have founded for the support of pilgrims and the poor. And now these Romans, without nobility and without valour, inflated by nothing but their literature, aspire to kingdoms and empires. The Church was founded on poverty and simplicity, and no one can give it other foundation than that which Jesus Christ has fixed. At the same time the Emperor continued to prepare for immediate departure, in spite of the sentence which hung over him. The Pope assembled a numerous Council, and thundered forth a second excommu *See Giannone, 1. xvi. c. 6. Sigonio seguitò la fede di Matteo Paris, il quale (ad ann. 1227, p. 286) scrisse: Animo nimis consternati in iisdem navibus quibus venerant plusquam 40 armatorum millia sunt reversi.' But this passage more probably relates to the numerous pilgrims, who had actually sailed to the Holy Land for the purpose of meeting Frederic, and who immediately returned on not finding him there. Fleury makes no mention of his having put to sea at all on this occasion; but Bzovius asserts -'per triduum in mare provectus cursum convertit ac se neque maris jactationem neque incommodam valetudinem pati posse asseruit. Ann. Eccles. ad ann. 1227. In 1229, Gregory IX. levied an exaction of tenths in England with so much severity, that even the standing crops were anticipated, and the bishops obliged to sell their property, or borrow money at a high interest, in order to answer the demand. Erat Papa tot et tantis involutus debitis, ut unde bellicam, quam susceperat, expeditionem sustineret, penitus ignorabat. Matth. Paris, anno citato. Mention is made of the continual, though secret, maledictions with which the Pope was pursued. nication; and in the spring following, without making any humiliation, or obtaining any repeal of the anathema under which he lay, Frederic set sail for the Holy Land. If there had been a shadow of sincerity in Gregory's professed enthusiasm for the liberation of Palestine,-if he had loved the name and birth-place of Christ with half the ardour Frederic II. in with which he clung to his own papal and personal Palestine. dignity, he would not have pursued the departed Emperor with his perverse malevolence, he would not have prostituted the ecclesiastical censures, to thwart his projects and blast his hopes. Yet he did so his mendicant emissaries were despatched to the Patriarch and the military orders of Jerusalem, informing them of the sentence under which Frederic was placed, and forbidding them to act, or to communicate with him. At the same time, provoked, as some assert*, by a previous aggression from Frederic's lieutenant, he invaded with all his forces the Apulian dominions of the Emperor. Under these adverse circumstances, Frederic made a hasty, but not inglorious †, treaty with the Saracens, and instantly returned to the defence of his own kingdom-a measure which became the more necessary, since the Pope had issued a third excommunication, releasing his subjects from their oath of allegiance. We do not profess, in this peaceful narrative, to describe the details of military adventures, or to trace the perplexed and faithless politics of Italy. We must be contented to add, that some successes of the Emperor led to a hollow and fruitless reconciliation; that this again broke out (in the year 1238) into open war, which lasted till the death of λ the Pope, three years afterwards. The period of nominal peace had been disturbed by the constant complaints and recriminations § of both parties. The perusal of those papers is sufficient to convince us, that if both had some, the Pope had the greater, share of blame; and while the style, which the prelate assumes, is that of an offended and injured protector and patron, the language of the Emperor, though never abject, frequently descends to the borders of querulousness and humility. The cause of Frederic gained nothing by the death of Gregory, since he was succeeded by Innocent IV. || This extraordinary person (Sinibaldo Fieschi, a Genoese) had been distin- Innocent IV. guished as cardinal by his attachment to the person, if not to the cause, of the emperor; and on his election to the pontificate, the people of Italy indulged the fond and natural expectation, that the dissensions which blighted their happiness would at length be composed. Not so Frederic; for he was familiar with the soul of Innocent, and had read his insolent and implacable character. To his friends, who proffered their congratulations, he replied, that there was cause for sorrow rather than joy, since he had exchanged a cardinal, who was * Fleury, l. 79, s. 43. Giannone, 1. 16, c. 6. The possession of the City and of the Holy Sepulchre was secured to the Christians, while the Temple (now the Mosque of Omar) which had already been desecrated to the Mahometan worship, was left in the possession of the Saracens: a fair arrangement, which was misrepresented by the Pope and most ecclesiastical writers, and restored to history by Gibbon and Sismondi. Rep. Ital. chap. 15. The plea which he gave was 'because no one should observe fidelity to a man who is opposed to God and his Saints, and tramples upon his commandments. A new maxim (as Fleury simply observes), and one which seems to authorize revolt. These disputes are related at great length by Fleury, liv. 81, sect. 32, &c. On June 24, 1243. Celestine IV., in fact, intervened, but died on the sixteenth day after his election. |