STOREROOMS AND PANTRIES.

The different methods employed in food preservation-such as cold storage, drying, salting, pickling and canning-have been briefly referred to and it remains to point out what may be done for the preservation of food of a perishable nature. When we realize that all fermentative and putrefactive processes are initiated by micro-organisms, we will appreciate the importance of absolute cleanliness and the creation of such environments as will preclude at least their rapid proliferation. For this purpose the food should be kept in dry, well ventilated and cool storerooms or pantries, located preferably in the basement, and away from contaminating influences, such as impure air, dust and other sources of infection. In summer the use of ice boxes or cold storage is quite essential to inhibit bacterial development, and food should be purchased in such quantities as to insure speedy consumption. It is perhaps unnecessary to say that food should never be kept in, or in close proximity to, living and sleeping rooms, or soiled linen closets, and yet this is not infrequently the case.

raw.

In order to prevent infection of the food by means of flies, the storeroom should be properly screened and it is also a good plan to use either filtered or boiled water for washing fruits and vegetables which are eater Persons suffering or recovering from communicable diseases should not be permitted to handle food for others. Food should never be placed in dirty pans or dishes, and great care should be exercised to prevent metallic contamination. For example, old milk pans may impart zinc, utensils made of tin, lead, or copper may contaminate fruit, lead or tinfoil may contaminate cheese; arsenical pigments have been known to contaminate the bread in green-painted bread boxes, or confectionery wrapped in colored papers.

PREPARATION OF FOOD FOR COOKING, ETC.

Prior to cooking, all raw materials should be thoroughly cleaned by soaking, rubbing, rinsing and wiping. This will render the food not only more appetizing, but also more wholesome, by the removal of adherent particles of dirt and micro-organisms. The same may be said of the removal of decayed or indigestible portions-such as the husks of legumes, the peelings of fruits, potatoes and other vegetables; and the removal of tendons and fasciae from meat. Chopping, grinding, and pounding renders meat and other articles more tender and accessible to the action of the digestive fluids. The addition of condiments improves the taste and digestibility, provided the food is not too highly seasoned. A high tem

perature secured by boiling, steaming, roasting or baking not only influences the consistency, taste, flavor, chemical constitution, digestibility and keeping qualities of food, but also destroys all parasites and microorganisms which may be present.

COOKING AND EATING UTENSILS.

Hygiene demands that all such utensils must be kept scrupulously clean; apart from the hygienic and esthetic aspect, food served in clean and attractive dishes tastes better and stimulates the appetite and digestion.

We have learned that, long before we knew of the existence of saprophytic germs and ptomain intoxications, the Hebrews paid special attention to the subject of clean cooking, eating and drinking utensils. We know from daily observation that unclean methods are a fruitful cause of disease (see p. 104, "Industrial Hygiene”).

The shape of cooking utensils is of importance in the question of cleanliness; for this reason a flat bottom, with a quarter-round termination of the sides should be chosen. Earthenware pots and pans glazed with lead, or iron pots enameled with lead or zinc containing lead, should not be used. Britanniaware occasionally contains lead and should be tested. Utensils made of nickel impart a peculiar bitter taste to the food and drink, but are not otherwise objectionable. Copper and brassutensils must be kept polished to prevent the formation of copper salts. Food containing fat, chloride of sodium and ammonia compounds should not be permitted to cool in copper utensils, as the copper oxidizes at the level of the food and becomes soluble. Iron utensils impart a peculiar inky taste and greyish appearance to food, and should therefore be tinned or enameled. For all these reasons porcelain-lined or graniteware and the various steam-cooking utensils should be preferred. The temperature of food and drink is not a matter of indifference; this is especially seen in the artificial feeding of infants. Iced drinks hastily swallowed are liable to cause neuralgia of the stomach, dyspepsia. and even acute gastric catarrh; cold grapes and fruit are apt to produce colic and diarrhea. The bad effects of cold victuals have been frequently observed in persons obliged to eat cold lunches, and may be regarded as a frequent cause of intemperance.

Apart from the bad effects of high and low temperature upon the teeth,* we know that cold injesta also impair the action of pepsin and ptyalin, which are most efficient at about the body temperature. Hot food or drinks, apart from injuring the mucous mem*Kober's Industrial Hygiene, p. 114.

branes of the mouth and stomach, also interfere with the action of pepsin and ptyalin, which is completely arrested at a temperature of 140 degrees F. On the whole, we may conclude that the temperature of food and drink should be as nearly as possible that of the body-heat, and this should be the rule for infants. A temperature of 45 degrees may be regarded an extreme low and one of 120 degrees an extreme high temperature for the introduction of food.

The consistency of food exerts considerable influence upon our digestive organs; coarse and tough substances are less susceptible to the action of the digestive fluids, and consequently more difficult of digestion; this is especially true of many fibrous vegetables, of hard-boiled eggs and heavy, sodden bread. For infants, liquid food is the best form, but adults require a certain stimulus, not to be had in liquid food, and if taken for any length of time this is certain to disagree and create disgust. A semi-solid food has also been objected to because of the excess of water, which is believed to lower the tone of the digestive organs. These objections have been urged by physicians on behalf of prisoners, who, on account of insufficient exercise, can not very well get rid of the excess of water. This same objection does not apply to persons actively employed, and for whom a semi-solid food has indeed been found by experience the best suited to their wants.

VOLUME OF FOOD.

It is not sufficient to supply the required quantity of food, but it should also be introduced in such a volume as to satisfy the feeling of the individual and the capacity of the stomach.

From the results of experience and observation we may conclude that an adult of average weight and performing ordinary labor, in order to satisfy a feeling of contentment, requires from 1,600 to 2,000 grams (4 to 5 pounds of food) daily. Of this amount from 800 to 1,000 grams (2 to 21⁄2 pounds) should be taken at dinner. These figures are simply suggestive, and as individual habits play an important role it will be well to guard against a sudden increase or diminution in the volume of food.

MEAL HOURS.

The daily allowance of food should be taken in divided meals. On account of the different habits and occupations it is difficult to formulate a rule for all classes. In a general way we may say that a healthy adult should eat at least 3 times and not oftener than 5 times day. The most rational dinner hour for a man who begins his labors at 6 or 7

o'clock in the morning is between 12 and 1 o'clock, for he will then be in need of food and if he defers his principal meal till evening he will be so tired that he can neither enjoy nor fully digest it. Such persons should eat a good breakfast, a full dinner about noon, and a supper between 5 and 6 o'clock. If their appetite for an early breakfast is poor, they should eat a light lunch about 9 o'clock A. M. and a similar lunch between 8 and 9 P. M. For persons not engaged in active muscular work it is desirable that they should eat a light breakfast, a hot lunch at noon, dinner at 5 o'clock and some light lunch between 8 and 9 P. M. Unfortunately, we possess as yet no reliable data, as regards the requirements of food for men who, while leading a sedentary life, perform a great amount of brain work. Some authorities claim that mental, like physical, labor increases the amount of carbon consumption, but not of nitrogen. Others insist that since the brain and nerve tissues contain the elements of nitrogen and phosphorus which occur in the protein compounds, they should be especially concerned in building up brain and nerves and keeping them in repair. The general impression, however, is that people whose work is mental rather than physical eat too much, especially fat and carbohydrates, and that the ordinary subsistence diet composed of 100 grams of protein, 56 grams of fat and 450 grams of carbohydrates is best suited for their wants. The food for all persons of leisure should be selected with a view of preventing overtaxing the digestive tract, and the production of constipation with its attending evils, such as pelvic congestion, enlargement of the liver, hemorrhoids and chronic dyspepsia. The legumes, coarse vegetables and clarets should be avoided, but the use of light dry wines, fruits, and coffee instead of tea may be encouraged.

The importance of a good set of teeth for complete mastication and avoidance of bolting the food, in order to secure thorough insalivation, has already been pointed out; nor should we underrate the influence of our frame of mind upon this important physiological function. Every meal should be a feast; the food should be temptingly served and monotony avoided; relishes and flavors should not be wanting. Pawlow, in 1902, has shown that the primary secretion of true gastric juice is the result of a reflex starting in the mouth and that the relish of the food originates the reflex. In other words, he has experimentally demonstrated why certain tempting dishes, however inexpensive, "make our mouths water," and Hornborg in 1904 has shown that distasteful food fails to cause gastric secretion.

GOOD FOOD AT REASONABLE COST.

BY C. F. LANGWORTHY, PH. D.

Expert in Nutrition, Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Department
of Agriculture.

The human body needs food, air, and water for its growth and maintenance just as do all living things. An engine can not run a machine or draw a train unless it has fuel, which is converted into energy or, as we say, which is used to generate power. In the same way the body must have fuel for the work of all sorts which it performs, for instance, for the work expended by a mason in laying stone, or by a carpenter in sawing or driving nails, by a woman who sweeps or does her housework, or by a child who runs or plays, and the body must also have fuel for the work which goes on inside it, such as the beating of the heart, or the movement of the chest when we breathe, a sort of work which is less often thought about and so less familiar to most of us.

Everyone knows that a large engine requires more fuel than a small one and that if the work is severe more fuel is needed than is the case when the engine is simply running and little or no work is done. It is the same way with the human body. A large vigorous man needs more food than a small child or a woman who is not more than twothirds his size, and if a man or woman is engaged in severe work each needs more food than when idle, the need being manifested by "a better appetite." Age also has a decided effect on the kind and amount of food needed, an aged man or woman naturally requiring less food than a man in youth or middle life, since the daily tasks and the amount of work done gradually decrease until in extreme old age most of the time is passed in quiet. Soft foods and simple dishes are more suited to old age when teeth are few and body vigor is much less than in the prime of life than are the hearty foods which strong men and women need. The infant needs the mother's milk and later the simple foods-eggs, milk, bread, vegetables, cereals, fruits, etc., which are the best foods for childhood and are most certain to build up a vigorous body. As childhood passes, the mixed diet with which most of us are familiar is commonly followed and, all things considered, is doubtless the most satisfactory for ordinary persons in health. Such a diet is made up of vegetables, fruits, flour and other products from cereal grains, meat, fish, dairy products, eggs, and so on.

Many persons have an idea that there is some special food, some ideal