Greek koç (whence Kóтɛpoç), Latin quis, Maso-Gothic hwas, Lithuanian kas, Russian koi, Gaelic co, who? A palatal is also found in words denoting hollowness and holding; as, Greek Kolhos (whence Latin cœlum); Latin cavus, capio.

X. The Lingual Mutes t, d, th, and dh.

1. The lingual, whether atonic or subtonic, has a natural adaptedness to perform the function of a demonstrative; as, Sanscrit tat, it, tataras, one of two; Greek Tó, TOUTO, TÓσOS, Toios, &c.; Latin tantus, tot, talis, &c.; Lithuanian tas, ta, to, that; Gothic thata, that; German der, die, das, this; English that, this, &c.

2. The lingual is also found in three families of words, very extensively diffused through the Indo-European languages, each of which has the general import of pointing or demonstrating; as, (1.) Sanscrit tan, Greek tavúw, teivw, Latin teneo, tendo, German dehnen, Russian tianu, English tend. (2.) Sanscrit dis', Greek deíkw, Latin dico, doceo, German zeigen, Irish teagasgaim, English teach. (3.) Sanscrit da, Greek dów, didwut, Latin do, Lithuanian dumi, Russian daiu, to give.

XI. The Labial Mutes p, b, ph, and v.

1. The labials, from the ease with which they are enounced, have been employed to denote the first objects which interest the child; as, Sanscrit pitar, Zendish paitar, Persian padar, Greek Tárηp, Latin pater, Russian batia, German vater, English father, Turkish peder; also, English papa.

2. They denote fullness or extension, from their swelling the cheeks; as, Greek mλéos, пλńрns, Latin pleo, plenus, German füllen, voll, English fill, full.

3. They also express aversion, from their puffing or blowing; as, Arabic uffu, Greek pɛv, Latin phy, English fie, poh.

XII. The Mixed Consonants tsh and dzh.

These consonants are introduced here for the sake of showing the difference between the physiological and the etymological development of sounds.

Tsh in English (where it is expressed by ch) is not an

original sound, but has arisen, in the mutation of languages, from other sounds; as, chaff, from Anglo-Saxon ceaf; chalice, from Latin calix; change, from French changer; cheek, from Anglo-Saxon ceac; cherry, from Latin cerasus; cherish, from French cherir; child, from Anglo-Saxon cild; chief, from French chef; chimney, from Latin caminus; choose, from Anglo-Saxon ceosan; chuck, from French choquer; church, from Anglo-Saxon circ. So tsh in Italian (where it is expressed by c before e and i) has arisen from the Latin c; as, Cicero (pronounced tshitshero), from Latin Cicero (pronounced kikero). Hence we have no occasion to investigate the import of tsh in modern languages. Its meaning, as an original sound in ancient Sanscrit, lies too remote for our present purpose.

Dzh in English, so far as it is expressed by g, is derived from Latin g, which had a hard sound; and, so far as it is expressed by j, is derived from the Latin j, and ultimately from the Sanscrit y. Hence all inquiry as to the import of our modern dzh is superseded.

XIII. Consonants in Combination.

We shall perceive the natural force of the letters to better advantage by taking some of them in combination.

Bl and fl denote blowing, blooming, and flowing; as, Latin flo, German blähen, blasen, English blow, blaze, blast, bluster, blister, bladder; Greek pλóos, Latin flos, floreo, German blühen, blüthe, blume, English flower, flourish, bloom, blossom; Greek pλéw, phíw, phúw, Latin fluo, German fliessen, fluth, English flow, flood; Latin fleo, to weep.

Cl or kl denotes cleaving or adhering; as, English cleave, clay (adhesive earth), cling, clinch, clutch, climb (whence clamber), clot (whence clod), clasp.

Cr or kr. See the force of the letter r, above.

Gl denotes smoothness or silent motion; as, English glib, glide.

Gn, jn, or kn denotes a sudden breaking off; as, Sanscrit janus, Greek yovú, Latin genu, German knie, English knee; Latin janua, a break in a wall.

Gr. See the force of the letter r, above.

Kn. See gn, above.

Shw and sw denote gentle motion (compare the force of the letter w, above); as, German schwellen, schwimmen, schwingen; English sway, swagger, sweep, swerve, swell, swine, swing.

Si denotes smoothness or silent motion; as, slide, slip, slime, sleight, sly..

Sn denotes ideas relating to the nose (compare the force of the letter n, above); as, English snarl, sneer, sneeze, snicker, snivel, snore, snort, snout, snuff, snuffle.

Spr denotes a spreading out; as, English spread, sprain, sprawl, spring, sprinkle.

St denotes firmness or stability; as, English stable, staff, stake, stalk, stall, stand, stay, steady, stem, stick, stiff, stock, stout, stub, stubble, stubborn, stump, sturdy.

Str seems to denote exertion; as, English strain, strenuous, stress, strike (whence stroke, streak), strip (whence strap, stripe), strive (whence strife), string, strong (whence strength), strict, strait, straight, stretch, struggle.

Thr denotes violent motion; as, English throw, thrust, throng, throb.

Tw is found in a large class of English words connected with the number two.

Wr evidently denotes distorted motion (compare the force of the letter r, above); as, English wrap, wreck (whence wrack), wrest (whence wrist, wrestle), wrig (whence wrig gle), wring (whence wrong, wrangle, wrench), wrinkle, writhe (whence wreath, writhle, wry).

We forbear to add more, hoping that what we have said will be sufficient to support our position, that language is not entirely arbitrary or conventional, but, on the contrary, articulate sounds have a natural adaptedness to express specific ideas.

CHAPTER VI.

WORDS AND SYLLABLES.

$85. 1. A WORD, in the Spoken language, is an elementary sound, or a combination of elementary sounds, uttered by the human voice. A word, in the Written language, is the letter or the combination of letters which represent these sounds; as, a, art, under.

2. A Syllable, in the Spoken language, is one or more elementary sounds pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and constituting a word or a part of a word. A Syllable, in the Written language, is a letter or a combination of letters which represent a syllable in the spoken language; as, an, wis-dom.

3. In the word man there are three elementary sounds, constituting one syllable in the spoken language. These three sounds are represented by the three letters m, a, n, which together constitute one syllable in the written language. The word syllable is from the Greek words συν, with, and λαβειν, to take. Every syllable in the written language has at least one vowel, but this is not always sounded in pronunciation; as, in the last syllables of ta-ble, rea-son, e-vil, nev-er.

4. Words consisting of single syllables are called monosyllables, from the Greek word povós, alone; as, man, he. Words consisting of two syllables are called dissyllables, from the Greek word dis, twice; as, o-ver, un-der. Words consisting of three syllables are called trisyllables, from the Greek word Tpís, thrice; as, dis-a-ble, fa-ther-less. Words consisting of more than three syllables are called polysyllables, from the Greek word noλús, many; as, fer-men-ta-tion.

5. In certain words of more than one syllable it is difficult to say to which syllable the intervening Consonant belongs. For instance, does the v in river and the v in fever belong to the first or to the second syllable? Are the words to be divided thus, ri-ver, fe-ver? or thus, riv-er, fev-er?

I

§ 86. The case is capable of being presented in two points of view, namely, an Etymological and a Phonetic one.

That the c and r in become, berhymed belong to the Second syllable, we determine at once by taking the words to pieces, whereby we get the words come and -rhymed, in an isolated independent form. But though this settles the point in Etymology, it leaves it as it was in Phonetics, since it in no wise follows that, because the c in the simple word come is exclusively attached to the letter that follows it, it is, in the compound word become, exclusively attached to it also. For such words as Episcopal, atrophy, bigamy, can not be divided according to their Etymology without violating the rules of Phonetics, as would be done if they were divided thus, Epi-scopal, a-trophy, bi-gamy. The compounds of AngloSaxon origin, as, up-on, never-the-less, false-hood, may usually be divided without violating the principles of phonetics; with respect to those of foreign origin, there is more room for doubt. Derivative and Grammatical terminations should generally be separated from the radical word; as, Lov-er, love-ly; yet even here there are some exceptions; as, we say Wri-ter, wri-ting, not writ-er, writ-ing.

§ 87. 1. In pronouncing the sound of p in ap, the current of air from the lungs is stopped by the closure of the lips. This may be called the sound of breath arrested.

2. In pronouncing the sound of p in pa, the current of air issues from the lungs by the opening of the lips. This may be called the sound of breath escaping.

We have, then, in the natural sound of p, two elements. Let the sound of breath arrested be expressed by 7, and that of breath escaping be expressed by @, the two together form the current natural sound of p (π+w=р).

3. Now what may be said of p may be said of all the other Consonants, the words tongue, teeth, &c., being used instead of lips, according to the case.

In the formation of syllables, the sound of breath Arrested belongs to the first, and the sound of breath Escaping be longs to the second syllable, as in the word hap-py. The whole Consonant belongs neither to one syllable nor to the other. Half of it belongs to each. The reduplication of