latest, to time; last, to order. Near, although in meaning an Adjective of the positive degree, is, in respect to its form, a comparative. The Anglo-Saxon form is neah for the positive; nea-rre, nea-r, and ny-r for the comparatives. Hence nearer is, in respect to its form, a double comparative, nea-r-er. DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. § 186. The following Adjectives are Defective in their comparison Out (adv.), com., Outer, Utter; sup., Outermost, Utmost. In (prep.), com., Inner; sup., Innermost, Inmost. Up (adv.), com., Upper; sup., Uppermost, Upmost; com., Hither; sup., Hithermost; com., Nether; sup., Nethermost; com., Under; sup., Undermost. Rear (noun), sup., Rearmost. Front (noun), sup., Frontmost; pos., Mid; sup., Midmost; pos., Middle; sup., Middlemost; pos., North; sup., Northmost, &c. The comparatives Former and latter, or hinder, upper and under, or nether, inner and outer, or utter, after and hither, and the Latin superior and inferior, anterior and posterior, interior and exterior, prior and ulterior, senior and junior, major and minor, can not, like other comparatives, be construed with the conjunction than. They are comparatives in form, but positives in nature. It is questionable whether Under, hither, nether, upper, are to be regarded as comparatives in meaning; at least they have the comparative form. The current opinion is, that in words like uppermost, the superlative is formed simply by annexing the adverb most, instead of prefixing it, as in other cases. But, in opposition to this opinion, let especial notice be taken of the Moso-Gothic forms fruma = first, aftuma last; and of the Anglo-Saxon forms, aftema = aftermost, upma = = upmost, hindema hindmost. These account for the m. Add to this, with an excess of expression, the letters st. This accounts for the whole form; as, mid-m-ost, in-m-ost. This is Grimm's explanation. In furthermost, innermost, hindermost, there is a true addition of most, and an excess of Inflection, a Superlative form being added to a word in the comparative degree. In Former a Comparative sign is added to a word in the Superlative Degree. = CERTAIN FORMS IN-ER. § 187. 1st. Certain Pronouns; as, Ei-th-er, nei-th-er, whe-th-er, o-th-er. 2d. Certain Prepositions and Adverbs; as, Ov-er, und-er, aft-er. 3d. Certain Adjectives, with the form of the comparative, but the power of the Positive Degree; as, Upp-er, und-er, inn-er, out-er, hard-er. 4th. All Adjectives of the Comparative Degree; as, Wiser, strong-er, bett-er. Now what is the idea common to all these words, expressed by the sign -er, and connecting the four divisions into one class? Bopp, who has best generalized the view of these forms, considers the fundamental idea to be that of duality. In the Comparative degree, of which the affix in question is more particularly applied, we have a relation between one object and some other object like it, or a relation between two single elements of comparison: A is wiser than B. In the Superlative degree we have a relation between one object and all others like it; or a relation of one single and one complex element of comparison: A is wiser than B, C, D, &c. "As in comparatives a relation between two and many lies at the bottom, it is natural that their suffixes should be transferred to other words; the chief notion is individualized through that of duality or plurality."-Bopp. The most important proofs of this view are, 1. The Sanscrit forms, kataras which of two persons? a Comparative form; Katamas — which of more than two persons? a Superlative form. Similarly, ékataras = one of two persons; ekatamas = one of more than two persons. 2. The Greek forms, Exáтepoç each or either out of two persons; ἕκαστος each or any out of more than two persons. The more important of the specific modifications of the general idea involved in the comparison of two objects are, 1. Contrariety; as, Inner, outer, under, upper, over. In Latin, the words for right and left end in -er; dexter, sin 2. Choice in the way of an Alternative; as, Either, neither, whether, other. An extension of the reasoning probably explains forms like the Greek dupó-Tep-05, and the plural possessive forms voiTεp-05, ýμé-Tεp-05, &c., which, like our own forms in -r (ou-r, you-r), correspond in termination with the comparative degree (oopw-rep-os, wiser). Words, also, like hither and thither, are instances of what is probably the effect of a similar association of ideas. § 188. Either, neither, other, whether. It has just been stated that the general fundamental idea common to all these forms is that of choice between two objects in the way of an alternative. Either and neither are common Pronouns. Other, like one, is a Pronoun capable of taking the Plural form of a Substantive (others), and also that of the Genitive case (the other's money, the other's bread). Whether is a Pronoun in the almost obsolete form, "Whether (=which) of the two do you prefer?" and a Conjunction in sentences like "Whether will you do it or not?" The use of the form others is recent. "They are taken out of the way as all other." -Job. § 189. Besides the terminational comparison, there is another which is expressed by certain Intensive words; as, very, exceedingly, extremely; as, "very hard;" "extremely great;" "exceedingly kind.” When very or any similar word is put before the Positive, it is called the Superlative of EMINENCE, to distinguish it from the Superlative of Comparison. Thus, "very bold" is the Superlative of Eminence; and boldest is the Superlative of Comparison. § 190. Another mode of comparison, which in its nature is eminently superlative, is to select a certain class superior to others as the starting point of comparison; as, "King of kings;" "Lord of lords;" The bravest of the brave." As all men are not brave, brave is itself comparative; and if the brave exceed the common herd, much more does the bravest exceed the common herd. § 191. The comparison is sometimes modified by such terms as somewhat, little, still, almost, much, so. Thus, "Learning is valuable, prudence is more valuable, and virtue more valuable still." "Short, shorter, shorter yet my breath I drew." ADJECTIVES NOT ADMITTING COMPARISON. § 192. Adjectives whose qualities are Invariable, not susceptible of increase or diminution, can not be compared (see § 179). Among these are, 1. All words expressive of FIGURE ; as, Circular, square. 2. Certain DEFINITIVE Adjectives; as, One, two, several. 3. Certain words implying MATTER, TIME, PLACE, PERSON; as, Wooden, daily, British, Mosaic. 4. Words denoting the HIGHEST or LOWEST degree of a quality. The following has been given as a list of Adjectives which do not properly admit of degrees: Some of these Adjectives, however, are frequently found in the comparative or superlative form : "But first and chiefest with thee bring." MILTON, IL Penseroso. Thus, too, we find "more perfect" and "most perfect," "fuller" and "fullest," although it is evident that nothing can be more perfect than perfection, or more full than fullness. "These forms of expression, though not logically correct, may perhaps be reconciled to our perceptions of propriety by sup posing that, in such instances, the Adjective, in its Positive state, is not employed so as to denote absolutely the highest degree of the quality, but only an approximation to that degree. Thus, when we say that one thing is fuller than another, we must mean that the one thing approaches nearer to fullness, or perfection, than another, presupposing that neither of the things is absolutely full."-Grant's Grammar, p. 54. CHAPTER IV. NUMERALS. § 193. NUMERALS express the relation of Number and Quantity. They are divided into the following classes: I. CARDINALS, which express a definite number, and answer the question How many? as, One, two, three, four. The word one is naturally singular. The rest are naturally plural. II. ORDINALS, which denote a series, and answer the question Which one in the series? as, First, second, third, fourth. The ordinal first is a superlative form derived from the root fore. The word second is derived from the Latin secundus. The remainder of the Ordinals are derived from the cardinal numerals by the addition of the sound of th, subject to slight variations. In third th becomes d. In fifth the vowel is shortened. In third there is the transposition of the letter r. III. MULTIPLICATIVES, which show the number of parts of which a whole is composed, and answer the question How many fold? as, Single, double, triple, four-fold. IV. NUMERAL ADVERBS, which answer the question How often? as, Once, twice, thrice, four times. § 194. In COMPOUND NUMERALS of the ordinal series, it is only the last number that takes the ordinal termination; as, the thirty-third year; the five hundred and twenty-fifth year. We may compare this with our mode of adding a Genitive termination to such phrase as the King of England; the King of England's crown. As we consider King-of-England a sort of compound substantive, and add the mark of the Genitive to the end of it, so we consider five-hundred-and-twenty |