sians, and Diana of the Ephesians is great, is a point in Rhetoric.

§ 373. The three, then, each being thus connected with language, are united by something more than the commune vinculum, the common bond which unites the several branches of Knowledge. They constitute the famous Trivium of the ancient schools, while the other branches of learning, namely, Arithmetic, Geometry, Music, and Astronomy, the Quadriv ium; as in these two hexameters, framed to assist the memory:

GRAM., loquitur; DIA., vera docet; RHET., verba colorat ;

Mus., canit; AR., numerat; GEO., ponderat; AST., Colit astra

A thorough knowledge of any one of the three can not be obtained without an acquaintance with the two others.

§ 374. As Grammatical forms existed before a system of Grammar had been devised, so Logical forms existed in language before any system of Logic. It is the office of Logic to observe, to classify, and arrange those forms, in order that they may be used understandingly and successfully for the purposes of reasoning.

It is foreign to the aim of the present work to exhibit the Principles or the Rules of Logic. All that is attempted is to present some of the Forms of Logic, which, in other words, are but Forms of Language. "Logic," says Whately, "is wholly concerned in the use of Language."

CHAPTER II.

TERMS.

§ 375. THE word TERM in Logic is from the Latin terminus, a boundary or end. In a proposition there are two ends or extremities, viz., the Subject and Predicate, between which stands the Copula. Thus, in the proposition, John is wise, John the subject, and wise the predicate, are the terms termini, connected by the copula is. The Subject and

Predicate are the terms of a proposition. A term is the name of any object of contemplation. Of these objects some are Substances, and some are Attributes.

1. Terms or names which stand for a class of things are called COMMON; as, River. Those which represent a single thing only are called SINGULAR; as, Boston.

2. Terms or names which express objects, of which one, as father, implies the existence of the other, as son, are called CORRELATIVE.

3. Terms or names which represent qualities which inhere in some subject, such as wise, are called CONCRETE. Those which represent qualities which do not thus inhere, but exist by themselves, such as wisdom, are called ABSTRACT.

4. Terms or names related to each other, as are wise and foolish, are called CONTRARY. These denote only the most

widely different in the same class.

5. Terms or names related to each other, as are organized and unorganized, the one being a direct negative of the other, both being applicable to objects not in the same class, are called CONTRADICTORY.

6. Terms or names related, as are wise and foolish, which can not be applied to the same person at the same time, are called INCOMPATIBLE. Those which are related to each other, as are wise and worthy, which can be applied to the same person at the same time, are called COMPATIBLE.

§ 376. Some of the parts of speech, as the Substantive, Adjective, Pronoun, can be employed as terms by themselves. Some of them can not be thus employed, as the Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection, the Inflected Cases of Nouns and Pronouns or the Verb, with the exception of the Participle and the Infinitive Mode. These parts of speech can be employed as terms, if at all, only in combination with some other words.

§ 377. A word which can by itself form a term is called a Categorematic word, from the Greek word kaτnyopεiv=to predicate. A word which can make only part of a term is called a Syncategorematic word, from the Greek word oúv, signifying with. It must be taken with some other word to form a term. See § 405. Strictly speaking, even the Ad

jective might be, as it was, reckoned with the latter class, syncategorematic, while the word with which it agrees, even when understood, might be regarded as the true term. It is more convenient to regard it as categorematic. See § 399. A SIMPLE TERM is a name which expresses an object of simple apprehension. See § 414.

A COMPLEX TERM is a combination of words which expresses an object of complex apprehension; as, A man with a sword. A man of truth. See § 414.

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A term may be made of several words, still it expresses but one thing. See § 385.

PREDICABLES.

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§ 378. In the Language of the schools there were FIVE PREDICABLES, i. e., Five things, one or other of which must be affirmed wherever any thing is affirmed concerning another thing, as in the following example:

1. Wine is the SPECIES, or subordinate Class.

2. Juice is the GENUS, or Class in which wine is included. 3. The quality which distinguishes "wine" from all other "species" of juice is its being "extracted from grapes;" the Logical name for such a quality is the DIFFERENTIA =difference characteristic. This is something joined to the essence.

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4. A quality which belongs universally to the species, as that of "inebriating" to wine, without being its distinguishing quality, is termed a PROPERTY of it.

5. A quality which does not belong universally to a species, but is present only in some of the individuals which compose it, as that of being "sweet" to "wine," is termed an Acci

DENT.

EXERCISE.

Mention which of these five relations the lower terms of the subjoined pairs sustain to the upper :

§ 379. GENUS and Difference make up the SPECIES. Thus "animal" (the genus) and "rational" (the difference) constitute the "man." The Species, in reality, contains the Genus (i. e., implies it); and when the Genus is called a whole, and is said to contain the Species, this is only a metaphor ical expression, signifying that it comprehends the Species in its more extensive, but less full (intensive) signification: e. g., if I predicate of Cæsar that he is an animal, I say the truth, indeed, but not the whole truth; for he is not only an animal, but a man, so that "man" is a more full and com plete expression than "animal;" while "animal" is more extensive, as it comprehends several other species; as, Beast, bird, &c. In the same manner, the name of a species is a more extensive, but less full and complete term than that of an individual (viz., a singular term).

A Genus which is also a species is called a SUBALTERNUM

Genus or species, as "bird," which is the genus of "pigeon,"
a species, is itself a species of "animal."
There may be

more than one Subalternum.

A Genus which is not considered as a species of any thing is called SUMMUM (the highest) Genus.

A Species which is not considered as genus of any thing, but is regarded as containing under it only individuals, is called INFIMA, the lowest species.

In enumerations it is illogical to rank higher and lower species together: thus, e. g., to speak of "Flowers" as being roses, lilies, water-lilies, would be illogical, the third article being manifestly included in the second.

In the Summum Genus the Intension is least, the Extension greatest. In the Infima Species the Intension is greatest, the Extension least.

In the following enumeration specify the Illogical items;
Animals are, Horses, Lions, Dogs, Spaniels, Hares.
Colors are, White, Red, Crimson, Black, Green.
Compositions are, Histories, Poems, Odes, Orations, Essays.
Citizens are, Artisans, Manufacturers, Seamen, Sailors.

ABSTRACTION AND GENERALIZATION.

§ 380. ABSTRACTION is the process by which we notice some part or parts of the nature of an individual thing or object of perception and reflection, without noticing for the time any other part or condition of its nature. Abstraction may also be described by a reference to its office as an instrument of reason, which is to notice those parts of several