FORMS FOR THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

$331. The FUTURE PERFECT denotes future time that pre cedes some other future time. Of this there are two forms: 1 "I shall have written the letter before the mail is closed. This is the simple form, and denotes an action which will be past at a future time specified. 2. "I shall have been writing an hour before the mail is closed." This is the progressive form, and represents that an action will be going on before a certain other future action will take place.

66

There are other grammatical forms for expressing future time; as, "I am going to write ;" "I am about to write." In the sentence "I have to pay a sum of money to-morrow," there is implied a present necessity to do a future act. The substantive verb, followed by an adjective verb, forms another idiomatic expression of future time; as, "John is to command a regi

ment."

Of the two examples in section 325, I strike, I struck, the first implies an action taking place at the time of speaking, the second marks an action that has already taken place. These two notions of present and past time, being expressed by a change of form, are etymologically true tenses. They are the only true tenses (i. e., on the ground of inflection) in the language. In I was beating, I have beaten, I had beaten, and I shall beat, a difference of time is expressed; but as it is expressed by a combination of words and not by a change of form, no true tenses are constituted.

In Greek the case is different: Bovλeúw=I advise; èbovλευον = I was advising; βουλεύσω= I shall advise ; ἐβούλευσα =I advised; Bebovλevкα= I have advised; ¿bεlovλεvkεIV=1 had advised. In these words we have, of the same mode, of the same voice, and the same conjugation, six different tenses, whereas in English, by inflection, there are but two.

MODES OF THE VERB.

§ 332. MODE denotes those forms which the verb assumes in order to express the relation of reality or existence as conceived of by the speaker. See § 334. It shows the manner, Latin modus, in which an attribute is asserted of the subject.

I. The INDICATIVE mode is that form of the verb which expresses direct assertion or interrogation; as, "He teaches;" Do they learn?" It is used for actual existence.

II. The SUBJUNCTIVE mode is that form of the verb which exresses conditional assertion; as, "If he were there;" "Though he write." It is used for doubtful existence.

III. The POTENTIAL mode is that form of the verb which expresses assertions implying possibility, contingency, or necessity; as, "He can write;" "He may go; "He must submit." It is used for possible or necessary existence.

IV. The IMPerative mode is that form of the verb which expresses the will of the speaker; as, "Depart thou;" "Let us stay;" "Go in peace." This is used for desired existence.

V. The INFINITIVE mode is that form of the verb which is not limited to any particular person or number; as, To rest; to learn. It is used for existence in general. It partakes of the nature of an abstract noun.

Besides these, the participle has been by some considered as a mode of the verb partaking of the nature of the adjective, just as the infinitive mode partakes of the nature of a noun.

Indicative, from the Latin indicare, is so called because its chief use is to point out or indicate simply and absolutely. When used in asking questions, the order, but not the form of the words, is changed.

Subjunctive, from subjungere, to subjoin, is so called because the tenses of the subjunctive mode are generally subjoined to other verbs. It is used to denote something doubtful or contingent, or contrary to the fact. It is commonly denoted by certain conjunctions, as if, lest, though, that, unless.

Potential, from potentialis, posse, to be able, is so called because the idea of power is prominent in this form of the verb. It is denoted by the signs can, may, must, could, might, should, and would.

Imperative, from imperare, to command, is so called because it is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating.

Infinitive, from infinitus, unlimited, is so called from its not being limited to a particular subject as to person or number, as the other forms of the verb, which are called finite. This form of the verb is usually denoted by the preposition to.

333. The Anglo-Saxon has four modes of the verb, the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the Imperative, and the Infinitive, for which there were corresponding inflections.

Indef.

Perf.

IMPERATIVE.

Lufa pu, love thou. Luf-ian or -igean, to love.

Luf-iað ge, love ye. Tó luf-ienne, -igenne, to love. Luf-iende, loving. Luf-od, loved.

THE

CHARACTERISTICS

OF THE MODES.

§ 334. In English, the distinction between the modes, so far as inflection is concerned, is very slight. The only true subjunctive inflection is that of were and wert, as opposed to the indicative forms was and wast. See § 347. If he speak, as opposed to if he speaks, is characterized by a negative sign only, and consequently is no true example of a subjunctive. Be, as opposed to is, in the sentence if it be so, is an uninflected word used in a limited sense, and consequently no true example of a subjunctive. The distinction between the subjunctive forms and the indicative, however desirable it may be to retain it, is likely to pass away.

Between the second person singular imperative, speak, and the second person singular indicative, speakest, there is a difference in form. Still, as the imperative form speak is distinguished from the indicative form speakest by the negation of a character rather than by the assuming of one, it can not be said, on the ground of inflection, that there is in English an imperative mode. The Anglo-Saxon has distinct forms for the imperative; the English has not.

It is questionable whether any thing has been gained to the language by the introduction of the potential mode. It has taken its place extensively in English grammar as one of the forms of the verb. Still, it should be remembered that, in the language of LoWTH, the mere expression of will, possibility, liberty, obligation, belong to the indicative mode, just as all direct assertion belongs to that mode. In the forms of expression I can go, we may ride, he

must obey, I, we, and he are respectively nominative to can, may, and must, which govern go, ride, and obey in the infinitive mode. See § 349. In expressions like "if I should go," "if I may ride,” we have the potential form (or indicative) under a condition=the subjunctive mode.

Instead of the terms Subjunctive and Potential, it has been proposed by some grammarians, as simplifying the subject, to substitute for them both the term Conjunctive, to designate the two methods of connecting sentences. Thus, when an uncertain sentence is connected with a certain sentence, If it rain, I shall not go, and when two uncertain sentences are connected together, If it rain, 1 may not go, the term conjunctive is applied to each of the three uncertain sentences, instead of the term subjunctive to the first two, and the term potential to the last, I may not go. According to this view, the indicative asserts simply; the conjunctive asserts with modifications. The appropriateness of the term conjunctive is derived from the circumstance that the contingency is usually marked by a conjunction (such as if, though, that, except, until), which connects the dependent sentence with its principal.

INFLECTION OF THE INFINITIVE MODE.

§335. The Inflection of the verb in its impersonal or infinitive form anciently consisted, in full, of three cases: a Nominative (or Accusative), a Dative, and a Genitive. The genitive is put last, because its occurrence in the Gothic language is the least constant. I. In Anglo-Saxon, the nominative (or accusative) ended in -an : Lufian Bærnan Syllan

=

to love
to burn

=

to give

=

amare.

urere.

dare.

The en, in words like strengthen, is a derivational termination, and not a representation of the Anglo-Saxon infinitive inflection. The Anglo-Saxon infinitive inflection is lost in the present English, except in certain provincial dialects.

II. In Anglo-Saxon, the dative of the infinitive verb ended in -nne, and was (as a matter of syntax) generally, perhaps always, preceded by the preposition to:

With these preliminaries, we can take a clear view of the English infinitives. They exist under two forms, and are referable to a double origin:

1. The Independent form. This is used after the words can, may, will, and some others; as, I can speak; I may go; I shall come; 1 will move. Here there is no preposition, and the origin of the infinitive is from the form in -an.

2. The Prepositional form. This is used after the majority of English verbs; as, I wish to speak; I mean to go; I intend to come ; I determine to move. Here we have the preposition to, and the origin of the infinitive is from the form in -nne. Expressions like to err error, to forgive forgiveness, in lines like

"To err is human; to forgive, divine!"

are very remarkable. They exhibit the phenomena of a nominative case having grown, not only out of a dative, but out of a dative plus its governing preposition.-LATHAM's English Language.

THE NUMBER OF MODES.

336. Not only languages differ as to the number of modes which, by general consent, are attributed to them, but grammarians differ as to the number of modes which should be attributed to the same language. As modes represent the conceptions and affections of the mind, they might be as varied and extended as those affections. There might be the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the Potential, the Optative, the Imperative, Infinitive, Vocative, Precative, Interrogative, Causal, Reflective, &c. Modes are defined by PRISCIAN, “Modi sunt diversæ inclinationes animi, quas variæ consequuntur declinationes verbi." Modes represent the different feelings of the mind, to which feelings the varied inflections of the verb are adapted. It is said that the Arabic has thirteen modes, the Russian seven, the Sanscrit six, the Anglo-Saxon four, the same number which some of the most respectable grammarians have assigned to the English as received by inheritance from the mother tongue. See § 332.

§ 337. A PARTICIPLE is a verbal adjective, differing from other adjectives by carrying with it the idea of time. It is so called from the Latin particeps, partaking, because it partakes of the nature of the verb and the adjective.

There are two participles; the Present, called, also, the Imperfect or the Active Participle; as, Loving; and the Past, called, also, the Perfect or Passive Participle; as, Loved, written. Besides these, there are certain forms called Compound Participles; as, Being loved; having loved; having been loved. The last two forms are