MILITARY SYSTEM AND EDUCATION IN DENMARK.

I. MILITARY SYSTEM.

THE armed forces of Denmark as organized in 1870, consists of— 1. The Regular or active army, and-2. The army of Reserve. By the law of 1867, every male citizen who has completed the age of 21, is liable to service for eight years in the former, and to be enrolled ready for special call for eight years more in the latter.

The Kingdom is divided into five territorial brigades, and each brigade in four territorial battalions, in such way that no town except the capital, will belong to more than one battalion. Each territorial brigade furnishes the contingent of a brigade of infantry and one regiment of cavalry. The artillery contingent is furnished, one half by the two first territorial brigades, and the second half by the three other divisions. The forces therefrom comprise 20 battalions of infantry of the line, with 10 depot battalions and 10 of reserve; 5 regiments of cavalry, each with 2 squadrons active, and 2 depots; and 2 regiments of artillery, in 12 battalions. The total strength of the army, exclusive of the reserve, is 36,782 rank and file, with 1,068 officers, on the peace footing, and 47,725 men, and 1,328 officers on the war footing. About one half of the enrolled regular army are usually on furlough. The drilling is divided into two periods; the first lasts six months for the infantry; five months for the field artillery and the engineers; nine months and two weeks for the cavalry; and four months for the siege artillery and the technic corps. Each corps must drill each year during thirty to forty days.

The navy comprises the following vessels, all steamers:

Six iron-clads, with an aggregate of 2,455 horse-power, and with 65 guns-two of which are turreted, armed each with two of Armstrong rifled cannon; 12 unarmored vessels of 1,820 horse-power, and with 192 guns; 7 gun-boats of 480 horse-power and 38 guns; 6 paddle-steamers, of 1,060 horse-power and 38 guns. The navy in 1869 was manned by 901 men, and officered by 15 commanders, 34 captains, and 67 lieutenants.

The budget for 1869 provided 3,783,978 rigsdulers for the army, and 1,676,681 for the navy.

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NAVY AND NAVAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE.

I. MILITARY AND COMMERCIAL MARINE.

THE progress of the French Navy is represented in the following statistics taken from the Statesman's Year Book for 1871: In 1780 the war fleet consisted of 60 first-class ships, 24 second class, and 182 smaller vessels,-total 266 ships, with 13,300 guns, and 78,000 sailors. In 1805, the number was reduced by casualties and negleet to 18 men-of-war, with 1,352 guns. In 1844 the whole force amounted to 226 sailing vessels, and 47 steamers, with 8,639 guns and 24,513 sailors. In 1855 the navy was reorganized, by the introduction of every new appliance of naval architecture, construction, and ordnance, with the following results, in 1869–70:

The iron-clads Magenta, Solferino, Couronne, Normandie, Invincible, and the cupola ship Taureau, are plated, with rifle breechloading guns, and are not surpassed in strength and destructive. armament by the ships of any other navy.

Eleven of the smaller iron-clads, besides the ordinary floating batteries, are so constructed that when out of service they can be taken to pieces, packed up and stored away at the arsenal of Toulon. The navy is manned by a marine conscription, which dates back to 1683. For this purpose the maritime population is divided into five grand divisions, the centres of which are the five great Naval stations, with 12 subdivisions, including all the great seaports. Within these divisions all men and youths from the 18th to 50th year of age, devoted to a sea-going life, are enrolled, to the number of about 170,000. Except in a national emergency the government dispenses with the services of all under 20, and over 40, as well as pilots, captains, fathers of large families, and seamen ready for long voyages in merchant ships.

The navy was officered in 1869 by two admirals, 16 vice admi

rals in active service, and 10 on the reserve list; 30 rear admirals in active, and 19 on reserve list; 130 captains of first class; 286 captains of frigates; 825 lieutenants; 600 ensigns; and 300 midshipmen, or aspirants;-total, 2,218 officers, and 39,346 sailors, who, together with engineers, dockyard laborers, surgeons, chaplains, brought up the number in actual service in 1869 to 74,403, which did not include 28,623 marines.

The commercial marine of France embraced in 1867, 15,259 vessels, with a tonnage of 1,042,811, ranging from 30 tons to 800 tons each, and employing over 150,000 seamen, including 40,000 officers, whose duties required special professional training. Of these, 607 were steamers, with an aggregate of 129,777 tons and 55,160 horse power. The value of the commerce of France for 1867-8 was 7,500 millions of francs.

II. NAVAL AND NAVIGATION SCHOOLS.

The French government was among the earliest to provide special schools for the officers of its merchant service as well as for its warvessels. Prior even to the establishment, under an ordinance issued by Cardinal Richelieu, of schools for the study of navigation in 1629, Henry III., in 1584, had instituted examinations for boatswains and captains of merchant vessels, for which preparation had to be made with private teachers. In 1791 free schools of hydrog raphy were authorized in thirty-four sea-ports; out of 24,000 pupils of these schools, from 1850 to 1866, 3,731 qualified themselves as captains of vessels in the foreign trade, and 5,118 for service in the coasting trade. Prior to 1800, in fitness of design and skill in construction, French naval architecture was superior to that of other countries.

The system of education for the mercantile and military marine embraced in 1866 the following schools:

1. Nautical School for the Orphans of Sailors.

2. The Inflexible and other School-ships.

3. Naval Apprentice Schools at the government naval stations.
4. School for Boatswains and Shipmasters.

5. School for Naval Engineers and Stokers.

6. Naval Drawing School.

7. Schools of Navigation and Hydrography.
8. Naval School at Brest.

9. School of Naval Architecture at Paris

10. School of Marine Artillery.

11. School and Board of Hydrography.

12. Naval School of Medicine and Pharmacy.

NAVAL AND NAVIGATION SCHOOLS IN GERMANY.

INTRODUCTION.

THE organization of the North German Confederation, and more recently of the German Empire, and the necessities of its position, have already led to the rapid development of a military marine, and the unity of the commercial interests of the different States will soon expand its navigation as well as its naval armament.

1. KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA.

Long before Prussia was largely interested in either a military or commercial marine, the government had provided for the systematic training of all concerned in the construction, equipment, and running of ships, whether destined for the defense of the country or to its commercial interests. After enjoying opportunities of studying the theory of their business, as well as the practical application of its principles, they must pass an examination to test their knowledge both of the theory and practice-with a provision that no one shall assume the responsibility of the life and property of others without holding a certificate of proficiency.

NAVIGATION SCHOOLS.

There are six schools, situated at Memul, Dantzic, Pollau, Grabow (near Stettin), and Stralsund, devoted to the education of young men who propose to become mariners and masters of merchant vessels. A single director, residing at Dantzic, has the superintendence of all these schools, which have each two professors, each in charge of a division of the school, and an assistant who devotes himself to drawing in connection with the construction of vessels, and of charts. The principal has charge of the higher division, in which navigation and geography, both of the sea, and of the natural productions and commercial facilities of different countries are taught. The lower division deals with subjects which concern pilots-their professional and legal duties.

Candidates must have mastered the subjects of elementary instruction, and are examined as to their ability to read, write, and compose in their native language, and to go through ordinary arithmetical problems with facility and accuracy. An examination of

candidates takes place every year at each school, which is conducted by the head professor, in the presence of the director of this class of schools.

To be admitted to the examination the candidate must bring a certificate of good character, that he is over 14 and under 40 years of age. The school fee is ten thalers per quarter for the highest or navigation class, and six thalers for the lower or pilot's class. There are 32 lessons per week in both divisions.

The subjects taught in the lowest division are:-arithmetic, plane geometry, carpentry, plane and spherical trigonometry, navigation, territorial and astronomical observations, drawing of sea charts and astronomical maps, and the English language.

In the highest division, in addition to the studies of the lower, in which the pupils are carried further on, rigging and other points of practical seamanship, drawing the different parts of a vessel, the commercial requirements respecting a ship's papers, and the course of exchange at the principal commercial ports, are taught.

A final examination is held in which diplomas are awarded to those who have completed the whole course, and of proficiency in certain studies, either of which are of practical service in obtaining situations, and without which certain positions can not be obtained.

NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.

In the Trade or Polytechnic School in Berlin, provision is made for instruction in naval construction:

First-In the mathematical foundation of the most important physical laws; in physics, drawing, modeling, and the general principles of construction; in practical hydraulics; the theory of machinery, and the steam-engine.

Second-In the application of these principles to the business of ship-designing and construction, and particularly to designs for vessels, and the different parts of a ship in detail; to the art of shipbuilding; the general displacement of water and stability; hydrostatic calculations; general principles with regard to the form of vessels, and the theory of sailing and steam-ships; details of construction of wooden and iron vessels; practice; and planning and calculating the cost and capacity of vessels.

There are reviews of the ground gone over at the close of each term, which is obligatory only on those who enjoy free places, and each student receives a certificate at the end of his course, setting forth all his lectures and practical exercises, with an opinion as to his practical judgment.