nearly the same signification, but in common usage the word "crimes" is intended to denote offences of a more serious character, while "misdemeanors" denotes those of less consequence. Bribery, as used here, is the giving of money or reward to, or its receipt by, a person in office, as a compensation for acting contrary to his duty.

§ 453. It has generally been considered that members of the Senate and House of Representatives are not liable to impeachment, inasmuch as they hold their appointment under the State, or from the people they represent, and not from the national government.

We have already described the proceedings in impeachment; see § 114.

§ 454. In England the king is not constitutionally answerable for any of his official misconduct. It is presumed that he acts always by the advice of his ministers, and they are, therefore, held personally responsible for all political measures adopted during their administration. It is for this reason that the ministers resign as soon as they find that a majority of Parliament is against them. But in the United States, the President is, by the Constitution, answerable himself for his own official misconduct, and is, as we have just seen, liable to impeachment for treason, bribery, or other high crime or misdemeanor.

§ 455. The President, in all cases where his official authority and duty are not brought in question, is merely a private citizen, subject to the usual duties and obligations of a citizen. Therefore, if his testimony is necessary in any case for the purposes of justice, he may be subpœnaed into court and examined as a witness, and may be required to produce papers just as any other citizen, unless the papers relate to State affairs, which should not be disclosed.

§ 456. The following is a list of the Presidents and VicePresidents for each Presidential term of four years :

4th, March 4, 1801, to Thomas Jefferson, Va. Aaron Burr, N. Y. March 4, 1805.

5th, March 4, 1805, to Thomas Jefferson, Va. George Clinton, N. Y. March 4, 1809.

6th, March 4, 1809, to James Madison, Va. March 4, 1813.

7th, March 4, 1813, to James Madison, Va. March 4, 1817.

8th, March 4, 1817, to James Monroe, Va. March 4, 1821.

9th, March 4, 1821, to James Monroe, Va. March 4, 1825.

George Clinton, N. Y.

Elbridge Gerry, Mass.

Daniel D. Tompkins,

N. Y.

Daniel D. Tompkins,
N. Y.

10th, March 4, 1825, John Quincy Adams, John C. Calhoun, S. C.

11th, March 4, 1829, Andrew Jackson, Tenn. John C. Calhoun, S. C.

to March 4, 1833.

12th, March 4, 1833, Andrew Jackson, Tenn. Martin Van Buren,

CHAPTER XII.

THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS.

§ 457. THE executive and administrative business of the government is not all managed directly by the President himself, but has, by various acts of Congress, been distributed among several executive departments, viz.: (1.) Department of State.

(2.) Department of the Navy.

(3.) Department of War.

(4.) Department of Treasury.
(5.) Post-office Department.
(6.) Department of the Interior.

§ 458. The heads of these departments, together with the Attorney General of the United States, are appointed by the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate, and they constitute what is termed the cabinet, with whom the President consults confidentially upon public affairs. The Vice-President of the United States is not a member of the cabinet.

§ 459. They are the constitutional advisers of the President, and he is authorized by the Constitution (Art. II. sec. 2, clause 1) to "require the opinion in writing of the principal officer in each of the executive departments upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices." These officers are again recognised by the Constitution in the clause which vests the appointment of certain inferior officers "in the heads of departments," (Art. II. sec. 2,

clause 2.) The number, organization, and duties of these departments, are left to be determined by Congress.

§ 460. The chief officer, or head, in each of the departments is, as above stated, nominated by the President and approved by the Senate; but he may be removed at the will of the President alone, and is responsible to him. If a vacancy happens during the recess of Congress, the President may appoint an officer pro tempore to fill the place till the next meeting of Congress.

In some of these great departments there are established subordinate departments, termed bureaus, to which certain subjects of business are assigned.

§ 461. Each of the departments has an official seal; so also have some of the bureaus; copies of their records, authenticated by certificate and the official seal, are, by act of Congress, made evidence equally with the original record or paper; the heads of the departments are authorized by law to appoint the clerks, (except some of the principal clerks, who are appointed by the President,) by virtue of the clause in the Constitution, as above mentioned, authorizing certain appointments to be vested in the heads of departments; and they perform generally such other duties appertaining to their office as may be required of them by the President or by Congress.

§ 462. No contract in behalf of the United States can be made by the heads of departments, except under a law or appropriation authorizing it, so that they cannot involve the government in responsibility for the payment of money, beyond the amount appropriated by Congress.

§ 463. The Secretary of State performs such duties as are enjoined on or intrusted to him by the President, agreeably to the Constitution, relative to the correspondence with and instructions to the public ministers, consuls,

and diplomatic agents of the United States; or to negotiations with foreign States; or to memorials or applications to our own government from foreigners or the public ministers of foreign States; and generally to all matters relating to our foreign affairs. His salary is $8000 a year.

§ 464. The Department of State was organized in the year 1789, by the first Congress which assembled under the Constitution, and was termed the Department of Foreign Affairs, and the duties assigned to it related to the foreign affairs of the government. At a subsequent period in the same year, the name was changed to that of the Department of State, and it was then made the duty of the Secretary to receive, keep, and promulgate the laws enacted by Congress, and to have the charge of the seal of the United States, and affix it to the commissions of all civil officers of the United States lawfully appointed by the President, as well where the consent of the Senate was necessary to the appointment as where it was not. Passports to American citizens visiting foreign countries, are granted by the Secretary of State.

§ 465. After laws have been passed by Congress, they are enrolled on parchment, the sheets of which are of uniform size, and are signed by the Speaker of the House of Representatives and the President of the Senate; they are then sent to the President of the United States for his approval. If approved by him, he signs them, and, after notifying Congress that he has thus approved and signed them, he deposits the originals in the office of the Secretary of State, where they are bound together in volumes and preserved.

§ 466. In the Department of State, in addition to the Secretary, there are employed an assistant Secretary of