(who must not be confounded with the Stoic, or with the Academician of the same name), became his opponent on these subjects. Stilpo of Megara, a philosopher venerable for his character,' disallowed the objective validity of generic conceptions (rà elon); and the truth of those judgments which are not identical.*2 He made the character of a wise man to consist in apathy or impassibility (animus impatiens, Senec. Ep. 9.): from which doctrine his disciple Zeno deduced a great number of consequences. We find also mentioned as Megarics, Bryso or Dryso, a son of Stilpo; Clinomachus, and Euphantus.

V. Schools of Elis and Eretria.

127. The schools founded by Phodo of Elis and Menedemus of Eretria (§ 118), are not, as far as we can learn, more distinguishable from each other than from that of Megara. The first was a true disciple of Socrates: his opinions were set forth in dialogues which have not come down to us. The second, a hearer of Plato and Stilpo, may be said to have continued, at Eretria, the school of Elis.5 He and his disciples (in this respect resembling Stilpo) limited truth to identical propositions. They denied that it could be inferred by negative categorical propositions, or conditional and collective.

6

85, sqq.; Pyrrh. Hyp. II., 242 et 245. STOB. Ecl. I, p. 310. EUSEB. Præp. Evang. XIV, 23.

1 DIOG. LAERT. II, 113, sqq.; flourished 300 B.C.

*

“läugnete die objective Gültigkeit der Gattungsbegriffe (rà sidn), und die Wahrheit derjenigen Urtheile, die nicht identisch sind."

2 PLUTARCH Adv. Coloten, XIV, p. 174. DIOG. LAERT. II, 119. PLAT. Soph. tom. II, p. 240, 269, 281. SIMPL. In Physica, p. 26.

J. CHPH. SCHWAB, Remarks on Stilpo, in the Philos. Arch. of. EBERHARD, tom II, No. I.

J. FRID. CHPH. GRAFFE, Diss. quâ Judiciorum Analyticorum et Syntheticorum Naturam jam longe ante Kantium Antiquitatis Scriptoribus fuisse perspectam contra Schwabium probatur, Göttingen, 1794, 8vo.

3 DIOG. LAERT. II, 112.

5 DIOG. LAERT. II, 125, sqq.

4 Ibid. II. 105.

SIMPL. In Phys. Arist. p. 20. DIOG. LAERT. II, 135.

III. More complete Systems, proceeding from the School of Socrates.

128. A more complete system of dogmatic philosophy was founded at the Academia by Plato, on the principles of the Rationalists, or that of the pure Idea, and another by his disciple Aristotle, on those of the Empirics,1 or that of Reality. From the Cynic school sprang the Stoics, and from the Cyrenaics the Epicureans. The dogmatism of the Stoics called forth the opposition of the Academician Arcesilaus, with whom began the scepticism of the later Academy. In this manner, from the Socratic school arose four dogmatical systems; diverging from one another in theory and practice; and, in addition to these, a school decidedly sceptical.

I. Plato.

Authorities: Plato, his works, with the Argumenta Dialogorum Platonis of Tiedemann (in the 12th vol. of the ed. Bipont.), translated by Schleiermacher: Guil. van Heusde, Specimen Criticum in Platon. acc. Wyttenbachii Epist. ad auct. Lugd. Bat. 1803, 8vo. Aristotle, Cicero, Plutarch (Quæst. Platon.), Sext. Empiricus, Apuleius de Doctrinâ Platonis, Diogenes Laertius, lib. III, Timæus, Suidas.

Modern Works on the Life, Doctrine, and Works of Plato in

general.

MARS. FICINI, Vita Platonis: Introductory to his translation of Plato. Remarks on the Life and Writings of Plato, with Answers to the principal Objections against him, and a General View of his Dialogues, Edinb. 1760. 8vo.

+ W. G. TENNEMANN, System of the Platonic Philosophy, Leips. 1792--5. 4 vols. 8vo.

FR. AST, On the Life and Writings of Plato, intended as introductory to the Study of that Philosopher, Leips. 1816, 8vo.

FERD. DELBRUCK, Discourse on Plato, Bonn, 1819, 8vo.

Jos. SOCHER, On the Works of Plato, Munich, 1820. A work principally relating to their authenticity and chronological order. JAMES GEDDES, Essay on the Composition and Manner of Writing of the Ancients, particularly Plato, Glasg. 1748, 8vo.

J. BAPT. BERNARDI Seminarium Philosophiæ Platonis, Venet. 1599-1605, 3 vols. fol.

RUD. GOCLENII Idea Philos. Platonicæ, Marb. 1612, 8vo.

The Rationalists maintain that the Intuitional Faculty (the Reason) is the only source of absolute certainty. The Empirics trace all certain knowledge to impressions received from without, through the senses.-ED.

LUD. MORAINVILLIERE, Examen Philos. Platonicæ, 1659. 8vo. SAM. PARKER, A Free and Impartial Censure of Platonic Philosophy, Lond. 1666, 4to.

J. J. WAGNER, A Dictionary of the Platonic Philosophy, Götting. 1779, 8vo. with a Sketch of that System.

J. FR. HERBART, De Platonici Systematis Fundamento, Gött. 1805, 8vo. Cf. his Manual to serve for an introduction to Philosophy, second edition, IV sect. ch. 4.

P. G. VON HEUSDE, Initia Philosophiæ Platonicæ, Pars. I, Ultraj. 1827, 8vo.

Translations by COUSIN, SYDENHAM, and SCHLEIERMACHER.

See a Life of Plato by an unknown author, in the Göttinger Bibl. der alt. Litteratur und Kunst. 5 St.

NIEBUHR, Kleine hist. und. philol. Schriften, 1 Samb. p. 470, &c.

129. Plato' was born at Athens 430 or 429 B.C., in the 3rd or 4th year of the LXXXVII Ol., the son of Aristo and Perictione, of the family of Codrus and Solon, and was endowed with distinguished talents for poetry and philosophy. By the advice of Socrates he attached himself to the latter pursuit. He had originally some inclination for public life, but was disgusted by the perpetual changes which took place in his time in the governments of Greece; by the corruptions of the democracy, and the depravity of the manners of his countrymen. His studies were happily promoted by a diligent cultivation of poetry and the mathematics; by foreign travel, particularly in Italy and Sicily; and by familiar intercourse with the most enlightened men of his time; particularly with Socrates, whose conversations he attended for eight years; .*3 as well as by the corresponddences which he entertained with the Pythagoreans of Magna Græcia. In this manner was formed this great philosopher, surpassing, perhaps, all, by the vastness and profoundness of his views, and the correctness and eloquence with which he expressed them; while his moral character entitled him to take his place by the side of Socrates. He 2 PLAT. Epist. VII.

His proper name was Aristocles. He had previously become acquainted with the system of Heraclitus. 3 XENOPH. Memorab. III. 6. APULEIUS.

4 Jo. GUIL. JANI Dissert. de Institutione Platonis, Viteb. 1706. De Perigrinatione Platonis, ibid. ejusd.

CHPH. RITTER, De Præceptoribus Platonis, Gryphisw. 1707, 4to.
On his intercourse with Xenophon :

AUG. BOECKн, Progr. de Simultate quam Plato cum Xenophonte exercuisse fertur, Berol. 1811, 4to.

founded in the Academia a school of philosophy, which for a long period was a nursery of virtuous men and profound thinkers. Plato died in the first year of the CVIII Olympiad, 348 B.C.

130. His works, principally in the form of dialogues;1 (models of excellence for the rare union of a poetic and philosophic spirit); are the only incontestable authorities respecting his opinions; but we must not hope to attain his entire system except by conjecture, as he had certain doctrines (papa dóquara) which he did not communicate except to those whom he entrusted with his esoteric philosophy.3*

131. Plato, by his philosophical education and the superiority of his mind, had placed himself on the higher position of Ideas, which gave him a commanding view of the systems of his contemporaries, without allowing him to be involved in their prejudices. He embraced the highest aim of humanity, together with the theoretical interests of the

1 J. JAC. NAST, Progr. de Methodo Platonis Philosophiam tradendi Dialogicâ, Stuttg. 1787. 4to.

ZELLER, Platonische Studien, 1840.

HERMANN, Geschichte und System der platonischen Philosophie, 1839. 1 Th. Die historisch-kritische Gründlegung enthaltend.

J. AUG. GOERENZ, Progr. de Dialogisticâ Arte Platonis, Viteb. 1794, 4to.

2 HENR. PHIL. CONR.. HENKE, De Philosophiâ Mythicâ, Platonis imprimis, Observationes variæ, Helmst. 1776, 4to.

J. AUG. EBERHARD, Dissert. on the proper end of Philosophy, and the Mythi of Plato, in his Vermischte Schriften, Hal. 1788. 8vo. J. CHR. HUTTNER, De Mythis Platonis, Lips. 1788, 4to.

+ GARNIER, Mem. on the use which Plato has made of Fables, in the Mém. de l'Acad. des Inscript. tom. XXXII.

M. MARX, the Mythi of Plato, a Dissert. in the Eleutheria, a Literary Gazette of Fribourg, published by EHRHARDT, tom. 1, fasc. 2 and 3. Frib. 1819, 8vo.

3 PLAT. Epist. II, VII, XIII; Phædr. p. 388; Alcib. Pr. de Rep. IV. ARIST. Phys. IV, 2; De Gener. et Corrupt. II. 3. SIMPLIC. in Arist. libr. de Animâ, Í, p. 76. SUIDAS.

* This is denied by others.

We must not omit to notice, as sources of information respecting Plato, the passages in Aristotle, where that philosopher criticises the system of his master. See FR. A. TRENDELENBURG, Platonis de Ideis et Numeris Doctrinâ ex Aristotele illustrata, Lips. 1826, 8vo.

• Sophista, vol. II, p. 252, 265. Cratyl., p. 345, 286.

reason, and always considered theoretical and practical philosophy as forming essential parts of the same whole; and conceived that it was only by means of true philosophy that human nature could attain its proper destination.1

5

132. His critical acquaintance with preceding systems, and the appreciation of their ideal aim, enabled Plato to form more adequate notions of the proper end, extent, and character of philosophy. Under this term he comprehended a knowledge of the Universal, the Necessary, the Absolute, as well as of the relations and essential properties of all things.3 Science he viewed as the form of philosophy. Philosophy he defined to be Science, properly so called. The source of knowledge he pronounced to be not the evidence of our senses, which are occupied with contingent matter, nor yet the understanding, but Reason, whose object is that which is Invariable and Absolute (Tò ÖVTWS Övo). He held the doctrine of the existence in the reason of certain innate notions (vonuara) which form the basis of our conceptions, and precede in the soul the representation of what is individual and peculiar, besides forming the elements of our practical resolutions. These notions have for their object the Ideas (idea), the eternal archetypes (apadéquata), or unities (uovádes), which are the essence of infinite things, and the principles to which we refer the endless multiplicity of things (Tò ameiρov, tà πoλλà)' by means of thought; and 1 De Rep. VI, p. 76, 77; Ep. VII.

2 On the end of the philosophy of Plato, see, besides the work of Eberhard quoted in the preceding section:

AUG. MAGN. KRAFT, De Notione Philosophiæ in Platonis ¿paorais, Lips. 1786, 4to.

GOTTLOB ERN. SCHULZE, De summo secundum Platonem Philosophia fine, Helmst. 1789, 4to.

3 Theætet., p. 141; De Republ. VI, p. 69; V, p. 62; De Leg. III,

p. 131.

4 Jo. FR. DAMMANN, Diss. I et II de Humanâ sentiendi et cogitanda facultatis Naturâ ex Mente Platonis. Helmst. 1792, 4to.

* See Observation, § 41.

5 Phædo, p. 225.

6 Phædr., p. 247. WIENBARG, De primitivo Idearum Platonicorum sensu, 1829.

7 Besides the general treatises above, see, on the Ideas of Plato, the following works:

SCIPIONIS AGNELLI Disceptationes de Ideis Platonis, Ven. 1615. 4to. CAR. JOACH. SIBETH, Diss. (Resp. J. CHR. FERSEN) de Ideis Platonicis, Rostoch. 1720, 4to.