heir: Eudemus of Rhodes, who, as well as Theophrastus, republished with very few alterations Aristotle's doctrines in Physics, Logic, and Ethics: Dicæarchus of Messana,' and Aristoxenus of Tarentum, the musician; both materialists in their opinions on psychology: the first considering the soul to be a vital energy, inherent in the body: the latter believ ing it to be a symphony or harmony resulting from the body, analogous to those elicited from the chords of an instrument. Heraclides Ponticus has been already mentioned (§ 138). Subsequently, we have occasion to remark, among the disciples of Aristotle, the follower and successor of Theophrastus, Strato of Lampsacus; who died about 270 B.C., and published, with more of original character about it, a dynamical system of Physics, in which he referred the existence of all things to the productive energy of nature, acting unconsciously; which caused him to be considered by many an atheist. We have fewer details with regard to Demetrius Phalereus, a follower of Theophrastus: as an orator and statesmen he was sufficiently distinguished. As for those who came after, Lyco or Glyco, of Troas, the successor of Strato (about 270 or 268 B.C.), Hieronymus of Rhodes, his DIOG. LAERT. V. 36, sqq. A. GELL. Noct. Att. XIII, 5. Of his numerous works, the only one which has come down to us, besides his treatises on Natural History, is his book of Characters (npikоi xaрактñрeç), and some fragments. Opera Gr. et Lat. ed. DAN. HEINSIUS, Lugd. Bat. 1613, 2 vols. fol. See also the work of HILL, mentioned in the following section.

9

2 Flourished about 320 B.C.

3 NIC. DODWELL, De Dicæarcho ejusque Fragmentis. Cf. BREDOW. Epp. Paris, p. 4, et alibi; et BAYLE, Dict.

4G. L. MAHNE, Diatr. de Aristoxeno Philos. Peripatetico, Amstel. 1793, 8vo. 5 CIC. Tusc. Quæst. I. 10, 31.

6 Hence he was surnamed Physicus.

7 DIOG. LAERT. V, 58. CIC. Acad. Quæst. IV, 38; De Nat. Deor. I, 13. SEXT. EMP. Hyp. Pyrrh. III, 32, 136, sqq.; Adv. Math. VII, 350; X, 155, 177, 228. SIMPLIC. In Phys. p. 168 et 225. LACTANT. De Ira Dei, 10. PLUTARCH. Adv. Coloten. p. 163; De Plac. IV, 5; De Solert. Anim. p. 141. STOв. Ecl. p. 298-348.

PHIL. FRID. SCHLOSSER, De Stratone Lampsaceno et Atheismo vulgo ei tributo, Viteb. 1728, 4to.

BRUCKER, Diss. de Atheismo Stratonis; Amoenitates Literaria of SCHELLHORN, tom. XIII. 8 Flourished 320 B.C.

9 DIOG. LAERT. V, 65, sqq.

3

contemporary, Aristo of Ceos, the successor of Lyco, Critolaus of Phaselis, who went to Rome as ambassador at the same time time with Carneades, and his pupil and successor Diodorus of Tyre-all we know of these Aristotelians is that they devoted their especial attention to the investigation of the supreme good. After them, we are ignorant even of the names of the masters of the Peripatetic school, till the time of Andronicus (see § 183).

The system of Aristotle for a long time maintained its ground as distinct from that of Plato: subsequently, attempts were made to associate them, as identical; or by giving the superiority to one or other. In the Middle ages that of Aristotle, degraded to a system of formularies, became universally prevalent, till in the end it yielded to Platonism: not, however, without continuing to retain great influence, from the general adoption of its Logic.

III. Epicurus.

Authorities: Epicuri Physica et Meteorologica duabus Epistolis ejusdem comprehensa, ed J. G. SCHNEIDER, Lips. 1813, 8vo.

Epicuri Fragmenta librorum II et XI, De Naturâ, etc., illustrata a Rosinio, ed. ORELLIUS, Lips. 1818, 8vo.

DIOGENIS LAERTII De Vitis, Dogmatibus et Apophthegmatibus clarorum Philosophorum lib. X, Gr. et Lat. separatim editus, atque Adnotationibus illustratus a CAR. NURNBERGER, Norimb. 1791, 8vo.

Cf. also the Didactic Poem of LUCRETIUS De Rerum Naturâ: and likewise CICERO, SENECA, PLUTARCH.

PETRI GASSENDI Animadversiones in Diogenem Laert. de Vitâ et Philosophiâ Epicuri, Lugd. Bat. 1646, fol.

Ejusdem De Vitâ, Moribus et Doctrinâ Epicuri, libb. VIII, Lugd. 1647, 4to. Hage Comit. 1656, 4to.

SAM. DE SORBIERE, Letters on the Life, Character, and Reputation of Epicurus, with Remarks on his Errors (among his Letters and Discourses), Paris, 1660, 4to.

+ J. RONDEL, Life of Epicurus, Par. 1679, 8vo. translated into Lat. Amst. 1693, 12mo.

1 DIOG. LAERT. IV, 41, sqq. 68.

2 Idem, V, 70-74.

3 155 B.C.

4 CIC. Acad. Quæst. IV, 42; De Fin. II, 3; V, 5.

Recudi curavit Joн.

5 J. LAUNOY, De Variâ Philosophiæ Aristotelicæ Fortunâ, Paris, 1653, third edition, Haga Comit. 1662, 8vo. HERM. ab Elswich, Viteb. 1720, 8vo.

G. PAUL ROETENBECK, Oratio de Philosophiæ Aristotelicæ per singulas ætates Fortunâ Variâ, Altd. 1668, 4to.

+ Essay towards an Apology for Epicurus, by an Opponent of Batteux (J. G. BREMER), Berl. 1776, 8vo.

FR. ANT. ZIMMERMANN (Resp. ZEHNER), Vita et Doctrina Epicuri Dissertatione Inaugur. examinata, Heidelb. 1785, 4to.

† H. E. WARNEKROS, Apology for, and Life of, Epicurus, Greifsw. 1795, 8vo.

NIC. HILL, De Philosophiâ Epicurea, Democriteâ, et Theophrasteâ, Genev. 1669, 8vo.

PETRI GASSENDI Syntagma Philosophiæ Epicuri, Hag. Com. 1665 et 1659, 4to. and in his Opp.

151. Epicurus,' of the demos of Gargettos near Athens, was born of poor parents. His father, who had settled at Samos, gained his livelihood as a schoolmaster, and his mother by divining. The constitution of Epicurus was feeble, and his education imperfect, but his talents were superior. A verse of Hesiod, and the works of Demosthenes, awakened in him, while yet young, a spirit of inquiry. Soon after, he attended at Athens, but in a desultory manner, the lessons of Xenocrates the Academician, Theophrastus, and others. In his thirty-second year he opened a school at Lampsacus, which, five years after, he removed to Athens, where he taught, in his garden, a system of philosophy which readily recommended itself by the indulgence it held out to sensual habits, combined with a taste for the refinements of social life, an abhorrence of superstition, and a tone of elegance and urbanity which blended with all his doctrines. He may be justly reproached with depreciating the works of other philosophers. Of his, numerous writings we possess only a few fragments cited by Diogenes Laertius, and the fragments of a book #epi puoews, which by a fortunate chance was discovered among the ruins of Herculaneum.

4

152. According to him, philosophy directs us to happiness by the means of reason. Consequently, Ethics form a principal part of his system, and Physics, etc. are only accessories. He assigns the same inferior place to what he terms Canonics, the Dialectics of his system. There is little originality in this theory of happiness; and the form alone in which it is put belongs to Epicurus. The theory

1 Born 337, died 270.

3 Ibid. X, 17.

2 DIOG. LAERT. X, 15.

4 SEXTUS EMP. Adv. Mathem. XI, 169.

SENEC. Ep. 89. DIOG. LAERT. X, 24-31.

is in fact nothing more than one of Eudæmonism, interwoven with moral Ideas, built upon an Atomic system by way of Physics; with a theology suitable to such a whole.

153. Epicurus borrowed from Democritus his theory of representations derived from certain subtile emanations of objects (απόρροιαι, ἀποστάσεις), which he supposes to detach themselves therefrom, and so disperse themselves through the air (§ 105). The contact of these images with the organs of sense gives birth to perceptions sensational and intuitional, which correspond perfectly to the objects themselves, as well as the representations of imagination, which are distinguished from perceptions by a greater subtlety, by fortuitous combinations, and a slighter connexion with external objects. The knowledge of the object is compre hended in the immediate act of sensuous cognition (Taio Onois). It is from the same act that we derive all our representations, even those which are universal, and of which there existed previously what he termed ones; the understanding contributing however to their formation. Every representation of the senses and imagination is true, because necessarily responding to the images impressed upon them; and the results are neither capable of being demonstrated nor refuted (evapyys, aλoyos). Our opinions (coga), on the other hand, are either true or false, according as they respond or not to our sensational perceptions: wherefore these are always to be referred to as their criteria. Our sensations (mán) are our criteria with respect to what we ought to desire or to avoid (αἴρεσις and φυγή). There is no law of necessity for thought; or a Fatalism would be the consequence. Such are the principles of his Canonics.

1 JOH. MICH. KERN, Diss. Epicuri Prolepses, seu Anticipationes, Sensibus demum administris haustæ, non vero menti innatæ, in locum CIC. de Nat. Deor. I, 16, Gött. 1756, 4to.

TACONIS ROORDA, Disp. de Anticipatione, cum omni tum inprimis Dei, atque Epicureorum et Stoicorum de Anticipationibus Doctrina, Lugd. Bat. 1823-4.

2 DIOG. LAERT. X, 31, sqq. 46, sqq. 52. LUCRET. IV, particularly v. 471-476. 726-753. Cic. Divin. II, 67.

3 DIOG. LAERT. X, 32.

SEXT. Adv. Math. VII, 203, sqq. CIC. Acad. Quæst. IV, 25. 32; Nat. Deor. I, 25; De Fato, 9, 10.

§ 154.

The Morals of Epicurus, with Remarks, by M. the Baron DES COUTURES, Par. 1685. With additions by RONDEL, The Hague, 1686, 12mo.

The Morals of Epicurus, drawn from his own writings, by the ABBE BATTEUX, Par. 1758, 8vo.

MAGNI OMEISII Diss. Epicurus ab Infami Dogmate, quod Summum Bonum consistat in Obscoenâ Corporis Voluptate, Defensus, Altd. 1679, 4to.

+ Investigation respecting the Partial and Exclusive Opinions of the Stoic School, and that of Epicurus, with respect to the Theory of Happiness (by E. PLATNER); in the Neue Biblioth. der Schönen Wissenschaften, XIX, B.

Morals. Pleasure is the sovereign good of man; for all beings from their birth pursue pleasure and avoid pain. Pleasure consists in the activity or the repose of the soul; in the enjoyment of agreeable sensations, and the absence of those which are painful (ἡδονὴ ἐν κινήσει, and ἡδονὴ καταστηματική). Accordingly Epicurus considers as the end and aim of man this well-being, which consists in being exempt from bodily ills and mental afflictions; and he places the summum bonum in a state entirely free from suffering (ἀταραξία, ἀτονία, παντὸς τοῦ ἄλγοντος υπεξαίρεσις), the results of the satisfaction of our natural and necessary wants, appetites, and desires. All our emotions in themselves are equal in worth and dignity, but differ greatly in intensity, duration, and their consequences. The pleasures and the pains of the mind exceed those of the body. To attain happiness therefore, it is necessary to make a choice (alpeois); and to rule our desires by the help of reason* and free-will, or individual energy independent of nature, which Epicurus explains in a manner not the most philosophical.2 Consequently Prudence (ppoveous), is the first of virtues : next to that Moderation and Justice. Virtue in general has no value or worth but for the consequences which attend her; namely, that she is inseparably allied to enjoyment. Contracts are the origin of Right; their end is the

1 DIOG. LAERT. X, 131. 136, 137. 139. Cic. Fin. I, 9, 11. * Reason must here be understood in its popular English sense, as denoting the intellectual and intuitional faculties generally.-ED. 2 Ibid. X, 144. Cic. Nat. Deor. I 25.