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degrees: ἔμφασις, Οι πιθανὴ φαντασία: ἀπέρηισπαστός : and διεξωδευμένη ἡ περιωδευμένη φαντασία! But he regards it as a duty to explore the probable. In this consists the system of Probabilities of Carneades (evλoyoría). He attacked the Theology of the Stoics in detail: proving that the Divinity cannot be conceived of as a (wov: and that we cannot apply to him any ontological or moral ideas. He exposed, in like manner, by victorious demonstration, the defects of anthropomorphism. He defended against the Stoics, the existence of a Particular Natural Right; and, on the subject of the Supreme Good, opposed to theirs the opinion of a certain Callipho; who made it consist in Virtue united to Pleasure. He threw considerable light on practical morals, by comparing Civil with Natural Right, and Prudence with Morality; (making Prudence the principle of action;) but for want of solving the apparent contradictions between these two principles he did injury to the cause of Virtue, though his own character was far from being opposed to it. Clitomachus of Carthage, the disciple and successor of Carneades (129 B.C.), put the sceptical arguments of his master in writing.

169. The Stoics were sensible of the danger which menaced the foundations of their system, but the only answer they were able to make was the reproach of inconsistency with which Antipater taxed the Academicians, or they cut short their attacks by the downright assertion-That we ought not to endeavour to discover any new grounds of knowledge and certainty. Nevertheless, Dogmatism and Scepticism, in their respective schools, relaxed somewhat of their rigour, and a sort of reconciliation between them was brought about by Philo of Larissa and Antiochus of Ascalon, his pupil and follower, who became a teacher at Athens, 1 CIC. Ac. Quæst. II, 9, 31, sqq. SEXT. Adv. Math. VII, 159, sqq; 161, 167, sqq. EUSEB. Præpar. Evang. XIV, 7, sqq.

2 SEXT. Adv. Math. IX. 138, sqq.; Deor. III, 12, sqq.; De Divin. II, 3. 3 LACT. Div. Instit. V, 14. 16, 17.

13; Fin. II, 18.

140, sqq; 182, sqq. Cic. De Nat.

QUINTIL. XII, 1. Cic. De Leg.

HEINIUS, Dissertation on the Philosopher Clitomachus; in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin, 1748.

5 CIC. Ac. Quæst. II, 9. 34.

7 Died 69 B. C.

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Alexandria, and Rome. The first was the pupil and successor of Clitomachus; he also taught at Rome, whither he retreated during the war of Mithridates, a hundred years B.C.; and by some has been considered the founder of a Fourth Academy. He confined Scepticism to a contradic tion of the Metaphysics of the Stoics and their pretended criteria of knowledge: he contracted the sphere of Logic: made moral philosophy merely a matter of public instruction; and endeavoured to prove that the old and new Academies equally doubted the certainty of speculative knowledge. Antiochus derived from the Conscience a strong argument against Scepticism, to which in his youth he was. inclined. Consequently, he became an opponent of his master and in the end endeavoured to demonstrate the identity of the Academic, Peripatetic, and Stoic doctrines with respect to Morals; maintaining that the differences were merely nominal. He has been improperly regarded by some as the founder of a Fifth Academy; for he rather approximated the doctrine of the Stoics; inasmuch as he admitted that there is a degree of certainty in Human Knowledge; and rejected the system of Probabilities of the Academy. These two attempts at union were the prelude to many more.

In his moral system, Antiochus treated self-love as the primum mobile of men and animals; considering its operation to be at first instinctive; and afterwards aided by consciousness and reason. In this respect he modified and tempered the Stoic principle.

170. Thus was the debate between Dogmatism and Scepticism for a time suspended: and the latter, at least, ceased to be heard of in the Academy. It is true that all these disputes had not settled the grand problem in question; whether there be any solid principle and foundation for

Cic. Ac. Quæst. II, 28.

1 SEXT. Hypotyp. I, 235.
2 That is, if it is of him that Cicero writes, Ac. Quæst. II, 28.

3 CIC. Ac. Quæst. II, 23. 38, sqq.

5 Ibid. I. 4; II, 4. 22.

SEXT. Hyp. I, 220. STOв. Ecl. Eth. II. p.
4 CIC. Ac. Quæst. II, 8, sqq., 34.
6 Cic. De Fin. II, 3. 8. 25.
sqq., 21.

7 CIC. Ac. Quæst. II, 7. 11. 13, 8 Ibid. II, 1. 1., et 35, 43, sqq.; SEXT. EMP. Hyp. I, 233.

De Fin. V, 3. 7; De Nat. Deor. 1, 7. • Cic. Fin. V, 8, 9, 11, sqq., 21, sqq.

knowledge in general, and, in particular, for Philosophic Knowledge; but by the observation of Moral Consciousness the disputants had come to the conclusion that a certain knowledge is necessary; and had drawn broader distinctions between what is subjective and what is objective, in our cognitions.

The four great philosophical factions continued to maintain at Athens their several schools, close by each other, without mutually interrupting their discussions; and prosecuted, but with less vivacity than of old, their ancient disputes.

CHAPTER THIRD.

OF PHILOSOPHY AMONG THE ROMANS, AND THE NEW
SCEPTICISM OF ENESIDEMUS, DOWN TO THE TIME OF
JOHN OF DAMASCUS (FROM 60 B.C. TILL THE END OF
THE EIGHTH CENTURY AFTER CHRIST.)

Propagation and Downfall of Grecian Philosophy.
General Sketch.

171. SCEPTICISM, after it had lost much of its influence in the Academy, re-appeared in the schools of Medicine: where it called forth, from the spirit of contradiction, new dogmatical researches founded on the intuition of the Absolute inquiries which were fostered by the increased intercourse which had taken place between the Orientals and the Greeks, as well as by some other great external events, such as the conquests of Alexander and the Romans, and, subsequently, the growth of Christianity. Combined with other causes, these events contained the principle of the decline and fall of Grecian philosophy, at the same time that they laid open new paths to the spirit of philosophic research.

172. Alexander had annihilated the republican liberty of Greece, and subdued to the Grecian arms, together with Egypt, the whole of Asia, as far as the Indus: thus opening the way for an active commerce between the East and the

Died 323 B.C.

West, which contributed to enlarge the sphere of Grecian art and science. Alexandria, that mighty commercial city which gradually succeeded to the importance of fallen Athens, strengthened these distant relations, and helped to convert them to the interests of science. The Ptolemies, the successors of Alexander in Egypt,' aided the cause of knowledge by founding their famous Library and Museum; although original inquiry appears to have been damped by this vast accumulation of scientific resources, and the facility with which they were accessible. A progressive decline became observable in the spirit of Philosophy, which was gradually directed to humbler objects, of a more pedantic character; such as Commentaries, Comparisons, `Miscellanies, Compilations, etc. etc.

Reference may be made to:

CHR. GOTTL. HEYNE, De Genio Seculi Ptolemæorum. Opusc. Acad., vol I, p. 76.

CHR. DAN. BECK, Specimen Historia Bibliothecarum Alexandrinarum, Lips. 1779, 4to.

§ 173.

(See the Works mentioned § 38.)

The Romans, a nation of warriors and conquerors, with whom the interests of their Republic outweighed all others, became acquainted with Grecian philosophy, particularly with the Peripatetic, Academic, and Stoic doctrines, only after the conquest of Greece; and more especially through the intervention of three philosophers whom the Athenians deputed to Rome. In spite of determined prejudices and reiterated denunciations, one of these doctrines (that of the Academy), daily gained disciples there; especially when Lucullus and Sylla had enriched the Capitol with conquered libraries. The latter, after the capture of Athens, 84 B.C., sent thither the collection of Apellicon, which was particularly rich in the works of Aristotle.

1 Third century B.C.

2 155 B.C.

LEVESOW, De Carneade, Diogene, et Critolao, et de causis neglecti studii Philosophiæ apud Antiquiores Romanos, Stettin. 1795.

DAN BOETHII Digest. de Philosophiæ nomine apud Veteres Romanos inviso, Upsal. 1790, 4to.

3 A. GELL. N. A. XV, 11.

The Romans almost always looked upon Philosophy as a mean to attain some personal or political end: betraying by that very circumstance their want of a genuine philosophic spirit. Nevertheless they eventually became the depositaries of Grecian philosophy.

174. Christianity, the religion of "the pure in heart," which prescribed a disinterested love of our neighbours, and proclaimed to all mankind, independently of any scientific form, the union of God with man, afforded as it were a fresh text, of the highest interest, which directed men to Reason as well as Revelation. It has exercised a various influence over the progress of Philosophical Reason, by the matter of its doctrines, as well as by their form.

175. The spirit of research of Grecian Philosophy, once so original and independent, was exhausted. Reason had tried every path, every direction then open to her, without being able to satisfy herself; for.she had not penetrated to the fundamental problem, that of the nature of Reason, and consequently had continued an enigma to herself. The different philosophic systems had viewed truth only in one of its aspects, and consequently were involved in errors. The want of philosophical method had rendered the disentanglement of these errors the more difficult; and a reconciliation or adjustment had become impossible between the different sects, whose disputes, while they prevented the understanding from sinking into lethargy, had also the effect of detracting from the pure and disinterested love of Truth. Consequently, the efforts of science were not so much directed to the investigation of the first principles of knowledge, as to maintain, consolidate, illustrate, and apply conclusions which had been already drawn.

176. The political, religious, and moral condition of the Roman Empire during the first centuries after the Christian era, were not such as to animate and sustain a spirit of philosophical research. Greece had lost her political existence; Rome her republican constitution. Beginning with the capital, luxury, egotism, and indolence had spread their reign to the remotest provinces. The characteristic features of the period were a neglect of the popular religion, a preference for foreign rites, (of which an incongruous medley was tolerated), a widely prevalent superstition, a disdain of

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