period of which we are treating a large number of followers:1 his exemplary life, and still more the mysterious character of his history and his doctrines, being the principal causes of the species of enthusiastic reverence with which he was regarded. Some Moral Reformers wished to adopt his principles of practice, of which number were Qu. Sextius (a Roman who wrote in Greek) and Sotion of Alexandria, both of them acquainted with Seneca at Rome: and to this class of Pythagoreans it is probable that we should refer Apollonius of Tyana in Cappadocia, a disciple of Euxenus of Heraclea in Pontus, a very remarkable man, who combined a scientific turn of mind with an exalted religious enthu siasm, who was moreover an imitator of Pythagoras, and consummate in divination; and finally, Secundus of Athens."

CIC. De Senect., c. 21; Tusc. IV, 2.

2 Or SEXTUS. He flourished about 2 A.C.

He must not be confounded with Sextus of Chæronea (§ 182) the Stoic. His Moral Sentences are to be found in the dubious translation of RUFFINUS, published by TH. GALE, Opusc. Mythol. Phys., etc. p. 645, sqq.

DE BURIGNY, On the Philosophical System of Sextius, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions, tom. XXXI.

3 About 15 A.C.

4 Seneca, Ep. 108.

5 Flourished about 70 A.C. Flavius Philostratus de Vitâ Apollonii Tyanæi, in Philostratorum Opp. cura OLEARII, Lips. 1709, fol.: where are printed, with many other letters, those attributed to Apollonius.

Jo. LAUR. MOSHEIM, Diss. de Existimatione Apollonii Tyanai; in ejus Commentationib. et Oratt. Var. Arg. Hamburgis. 1751, 8vo., p. 347, sqq.

SIGISM. CHR. KLOSE, Diss. II de Apollonio Tyanensi Philosopho Pythagorico Thaumaturgo, et de Philostrato, Viteb. 1723-24, 4to.

J. C. HERZOG, Diss. Philosophia Practica Apollonii Tyanæi in Sciagraphia, Lips. 1719, 4to.

See also BAYLE, and the article by BUHLE in the great Encyclopedia published by ERSCH, part IV.

* The discoveries of Modern Science have vindicated and explained the extraordinary powers attributed to Apollonius in common with Pythagoras and the Neoplatonists, by referring them to Mesmerism. See Colquhoun's Hist. of Magic, vol. I.—ED.

6 About 120 A.C.

For his Moral Sentences, see Secundi Atheniensis Responsa ad Interrogata Hadriani, in the work of TH. GALE, referred to above (note 2), p. 160, sqq.

3

Others (for instance, Anaxilaus of Larissa, banished from Italy under a suspicion of magical practices') applied the principles of Pythagoras to the study of Nature; or, like Moderatus of Gades, and Nicomachus of Gerasa, endeavoured to discover, in the Pythagorean doctrine of Numbers, a sublime and occult science, which they blended with the theories of Plato.

Neo-Platonists.

See the works mentioned § 201; particularly that of BOUTERWECK. 185. After the downfall of the Sceptic Academy (§ 169, 170), even in the time of Augustus, a new school of Platonists began to form itself, and became popular. Among these, Thrasyllus of Mendes," the astrologer, distinguished himself; with Theon of Smyrna, the author of an Exposition of Plato ; Alcinous, who has left us a brief sketch of the Platonic doctrine; Albinus, the preceptor of Galen; Plutarch of Chæronea, a disciple of Ammonius (§ 183), and preceptor of Adrian; Calvisius Taurus of Berytus, near

9

He flourished under Augustus.

6

2 Flourished first century after Christ.

3 Second century after Christ.

Nicomachus is said to have been the author of a theory of Numbers (Introductio in Arithmeticam, Gr. Paris. 1538, 4to.), explained by ÌAMBLICHUS; and of a Manual of Harmony (apud MEIBOM.: Antiquæ Musica Auctores, VII, Amst. 1652, 4to).

Fragments of his Symbolics of the Science of Numbers (coloyouμεvа άρioμητikà) are to be found in PHOTIUS, Biblioth. Cod. 187, p: 237.

4 An Essay on this occult science of Numbers is to be found ap. SEXTUS EMPIRICUS adv. Mathem. X, 248. Cf. also PORPHYR. Vit. Pythagor., § 32, sqq.

5 First century after Christ.

6 Second century after Christ.

7 Theon Smyrnensis de iis quæ in Mathematicis ad Platonis lectionem utilia sunt, Gr. et Lat. ed. ISM. BULLIALDUS, Paris. 1644, 4to.

8 Alcinoi introductio at Platonis Dogmata, Gr. cum vers. Lat. Mars. Ficini, Paris. 1533, 8vo.; republished with Platonis Dialogi IV. ed FISCHER, 1783, 8vo.

9 Plutarchi Opera Omnia, Gr. et Lat. ed. HENR. STEPHANUS, 13 vols. 8vo. Paris. 1572; ed. REISKE, 12 vols. 8vo. Lips. 1774-82; ed. HUTTEN, 14 vols. 1791-1804, 8vo. Plutarchi Moralia ex recensione XYLANDRI, Bas. 1574, fol.; ed. WYTTENBACH, 7 vols. 4to. Oxon. 1725-1821, et 15 vols. 8vo.

Plutarch was born 50, died 120 A.C.

M

Tyre,' the master of Aulus Gellius; Luc. Apuleius of Medaurus in Numidia; and Maximus Tyrius, the Rhetorician.3

These philosophers made it their object to disseminate in a popular form the Ethics and Religious Theory of Plato, and constructed for themselves a system of allegorical interpretation which connected the doctrines of that system with the ancient religious Mysteries. With this they blended. much that was derived from the Pythagoreans and Aristotle, and, in the Dogmatic manner, pursued the most lofty speculations (the outline of which had been traced in the treatises of Plato) on the Deity, the Creator, the Soul of the World, the Demons, the Origin of the World, and that of Evil. They supposed our conceptions to have a hypostatical existence, and applied their abstract principles to account for phenomena of their own days; for instance, the cessation of oracles. The physician Galen, the inventor of the Fourth Figure of Logic, was a calm and sedate Platonist, who admitted, to account for the phenomena of Life, the existence of a twofold Spirit (Πνεῦμα Ζωϊκὸν—Ψυχικὸν): Favorinus of Arelas, in Gaul, was more inclined to Scepticism. These Platonists were at the same time for the most part Eclectics, but not altogether after the manner of Potamo of 1 About 139. Apuleii Opera, Lugd. 1614, 2 vols. 8vo. ; in usum Delphini, 1688, 2 vols. 4to. Particularly his sketch therein of the Platonic Philosophy. Apuleii Opera omnia, cum Not. var. cura RUHNKENII et BOSSCHÆ, 3 vols. 4to. Lugd. Bat. 1786-1823.

2 Flourished about 160.

Cf. Apuleii Theologia exhibita a CH. FALSTERO in ejus Cogitationib. Philos., p. 37. 5 Flourished about 180 A.C.

MAXIMII TYRII Dissertationes XXXI, Gr. et Lat. ed. DAN. HEINSIUS, Lugd. Bat. 1607 et 1614; ex recens. J. DAVISII recudi curavit Jo. JAC. REISKE, Lips. 1774-75, 2 vols. 8vo.

4 EUSEB. Præp. Evang. IX, 6, 7.

5 PLUTARCH. De Def. Orac.; De Is.

Claudius Galenus, born at Pergamus 131, died about 200 A.C.

7 Galeni Opera Omnia, ed. REN. CHARTERIUS, Paris. 1679, 13 vols. Cf. § 81.

+KURT SPRENGEL, Letters on the Philosophic System of Galen, in his Collection towards a History of Medicine, part. I, p. 117.

8 IMM. FRIED. GREGORII Duæ Commentatt. de Favorino Arelatensi Philosopho, etc. Laub. 1755, 4to.

Z. FORSMANN, Diss. (præs. EBB. PORTHAN) de Favorino Philosopho Academico, Abo. 1789, 4to.

Alexandria, who, while he selected what he judged most tenable from every system, pretended to form of these extracts a separate doctrine of his own, concerning which we have not sufficient details to enable us to judge.2

The Neoplatonism of the Alexandrians, as we shall afterwards see, has been improperly deduced from this isolated attempt.

Scepticism of the Empiric School.

Enesidemus.

Authorities: Eusebii Prepar. Evangel. XIV, 7. 18; Fragments of Enesidemus, Ivóówvɛíwv λóywv öкта ßißλía, apud Photium: Myriobibilion sive Bibliotheca, cod. 212: and in Sextus Empiricus (cf. § 189); Diog. Laert. IX.

See also the article Enesidemus by TENNEMANN, in the Encyclopedia by ERSCH, part II.

186. Ænesidemus, a native of Gnossus in Crete, settled in Alexandria, revived, about the commencement of this period, the Scepticism which had been silenced in the Academy, and wished to make it serve the purpose of strengthening the opinions of Heraclitus, to which he was inclined. For in order to know that everything has its contrary, he maintained that we ought to admit that an opposite is presented to each and the same individual. He assumed an external principle of Thought, making Truth to consist in the universality of the subjective appearance." He accused the Academicians of being deficient in Gene

1 The period when he lived is uncertain.

C. G. GLOCKNER, Diss, de Potamonis Alexandrini Philosophiâ Eclecticâ, recentiorum Platonicorum Disciplinæ admodum dissimili. Lips. 1745, 4to. 2 DIOG. LAERT. I, 21.

3 He probably flourished a little later than Cicero.

4 According to the testimony of Aristocles, related by Eusebius, loc. laud. At the same time, Diog. Laert. (IX, 114), mentions among the disciples of Timon (§ 124), a certain Euphranor of Selucia, whose lessons Eubulus of Alexandria had followed. To the latter he assigns, as disciple, Ptolemy of Cyrene, who, he says, revived Pyrrhonism; and whose disciple Heraclides, a sceptical philosopher, had been the master of Ænesidemus.

5 SEXT. EMP. Adv. Math. IX, 337; X, 216, 233.

• Idem, Hypot. I, 210, sqq.

7 SEXT. EMP. Adv. Math. VII. 349, 350; VIII, 8.

ralisation, as Sceptics, and thereby contradicting themselves.1 In order therefore to strengthen the cause of Scepticism, he extended its limits to the utmost; admitting and defending the ten Topics (céra Tpóоι éоxis), attributed also to Pyrrho (§ 124), to justify a suspense of all positive opinion. These Topics are deduced: 1. From the diversity of Animals; 2. From that of Mankind considered individually; 3. From the fallibility of all our Senses; 4. The circumstances and condition of the Subject; 5. Position, Distance, and other local accidents; 6. The combinations and associations under which things present themselves to our notice; 7. The different dimensions and various properties of things; 8. Their mutual relations; 9. The habitude or novelty of the sensations; 10. The influence of Education, and Institutions, Civil and Religious. In short, Enesidemus opposed Sceptical objections to every part of Dogmatical philosophy. According to him, Scepticism (uppwveios Moyos) is a comparative reflection exercised on Appearances and Thoughts; which would convict them all of the greatest inconsistency and con

fusion.3

The weak side of this Scepticism is its Aim, and its pretensions to Universality.

187. The boldest attack made by any of the ancient philosophers on the possibility of demonstrative knowledge, was that attempted by Enesidemus against the reality of the Idea of Causality, and its application in the investigation of natural causes (Etiology). He argued that the notion of Causality is without signification, because we cannot understand the relations of Cause and Effect; which he endeavoured to prove by arguments in abstracto, and also by insisting on the logical mistakes and false inferences of the Dogmatists in their inquiries into the nature of Causes.

188. From the time of Ænesidemus to that of Sextus, followed a succession of Sceptics, all of them physicists of

1 Photius.

2 EUSEB. Præpar. Evang. XIV, 18. SEXTUS EMP. Adv. Math. VII. 345; Hypot. I, 36. Cf. DIOG. LAERT. IX, 87.

3 DIOG. LAERT. IX, 78.

4 SEXTUS EMP. Adv. Math. IX, 217, sqq.: Hypotyp. I, 180, sqq.