Abelard.

PETR. ABELARDI et Heloise Opera nunc prim. edita ex MSS. codd. FR. AMBOESII, etc. stud. ANDR. QUERCETANI (AND. DUCHESNE), Paris. 1616, 4to. Idem: In Historia Calamitatum suarum.

[GERVAISE], Life of P. Abeillard, Paris, 1720, 2 vols. 12mo.

JOHN BERINGTON, The History of the Lives of Abelard and Heloise, etc., Birm. and Lond. 1787, 4to.

+ F. C. SCHLOSSER, Abailard and Dulcin. Life and Opinions of an Enthusiast and a Philosopher, Gotha, 1807, 8vo.

J. H. F. FRERICH, Comment. Theol. Crit. de P. Abelardi Doctrina Dogm. et Morali, (prize comp.), Jen. 1827, 4to.

CARRIERE, Abälard und Heloïse. Eingeleitet durch eine Darstellung von Abalard's philosophie, 1844.

PETR. ABELARDI Opera, ed. V. COUSIN, 1850.

Abelardi et Heloisa Epistolæ, ed. RAWLINSON, 8vo. Lond. 1718. Lettres d'Abelard et d'Heloise, trad. par ODDOUL, précédées d'un Essai histor. par GUIZOT, 2 vols. 8vo. Par. 1839.

251. A celebrated discussion took place in the School of Paris on the mode in which the Universal is contained in the Individual, between William de Champeaux,1 a renowned Logician, and Peter Abelard, or Abeillard, his pupil and opponent. Abelard, who by some has been considered the first in point of time of the Scholastic philosophers, employed in the debate none but negative arguments; but proved himself to be endowed with some qualifications superior to the narrow dispute in which he was engaged. He was born at Palais, a village near to Nantes, A.D. 1079, and possessed rare abilities, which were sedulously cultivated. To great talents as a logician, he added an extensive acquaintance with Grecian philosophy; borrowed, it is true, only from St. Augustin and Cicero. The perusal of the Classics had imparted to his mind a certain elegance as well as a thirst for scientific fame, which set off his style in teaching and writing, and which at this period was rare, and proportionably admired. He evinced even greater boldness than Anselm in his attempts to demonstrate, on rational principles, the obscure dogmas of the Christian religion, particularly that of the Trinity. In this doctrine he assumes unity in the Divine Being, along 1 G. Campellensis: he died the bishop of Châlons, A.D. 1120.

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2 In his Introductio ad Theol. Christian., libb. III. seu de Fide Trinitatis, libb. III: see his Works, p. 973 sqq. and in the larger Treatise Theologia Christiana, libb. V. given by EDM. MARTENE, Thes. Nov. Anecdot., t. V.

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with diversity in his relations (relationum diversitas), in which consist the Divine Persons. He also maintains a cognition of God (as the most perfect and absolutely independent Being), by means of the Reason, which he ascribes to the heathen philosophers, without derogating from the incomprehensibility of God. He also attempted, as Hildebert had done before him (§ 249), to explain, on philosophical principles, the chief conceptions of Theological Morality, as, for instance, the notions of Vice and Virtue. He made both to consist in the mental resolution, or in the intention; and maintained, against the moral conviction of his age, that no natural pleasures or sensual desires are in themselves of the nature of sin.1 He discovered the evidence of the morality of actions in the frame of mind and maxims according to which those actions are undertaken. His talents as a teacher attracted an immense crowd of admirers from among the young men at Paris, and increased the celebrity of its university; but at the same time, his reputation drew upon him the envy of others, which, backed by his ill-fated passion for Eloisa, and the zeal of theologians rigidly attached to the doctrines of the Romish church, and in particular the jealousy of St. Bernard, embittered the remainder of his life, and diminished the influence his talents would otherwise have possessed. He died at Clugny, 1142. The epistolary correspondence of Abelard and Heloise which has been preserved, bespeaking the painful reminiscence of their past happiness, and overflowing with a spirit of sublime melancholy, is a glorious monument of romantic love. The most remarkable of Abelard's scientific works are his Logic or Dialectics, his Introduction to Christian Theology, containing his doctrine of the Trinity, and his Christian Theology. He also published sermons for the nuns of the Holy Spirit, and a Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans.

252. In spite of the persecutions of Abelard a great number of men of talents were willing to tread in his steps, and attempted, with various success, to associate Philosophy with Theology. The principal were G. de Conches, and Guilb. de la Porrée, born in Gascony, and bishop of Poitiers;

Ethica, seu liber dictus Scito Teipsum, in PEZII Thes. Noviss. Anecdotorum, t. III, part 2, p. 625. 2 Died 1150.

3 On that account surnamed Pictaviensis. Died 1154.

Hugh de St. Victor, of Lower Saxony or Flanders; Robert (Folioth?) of Melun, Robert Pulleyn, an Englishman; Peter, surnamed Lombardus, bishop of Paris, born in a village near Novara, in Lombardy, and died 1164. To these must be added the disciple of the latter, Peter of Poitiers ; Hugh of Amiens; Richard de St. Victor the mystic; Alain de Ryssel, etc. The most distinguished was Lombardus, in consequence of his Libri Sententiarum, which procured him the additional appellation of Magister Sententiarum. In these he put together extracts from the Fathers on different points of faith, without adding any solution of the difficulties that occurred; supplying an abundant treasury of disputation for the logicians of his time. His works became popular a sort of storehouse and armoury for ecclesiastical polemics; though others of those we have mentioned possessed more real merit; for instance, the two mystics, Hugh de St. Victor, surnamed the Second Augustin, a man of an elegant and philosophical mind; and his pupil Richard de St. Victor, who to his mysticism added considerable acuteness. Pulleyn also was the author of a clear and enlarged distinction of Dogmas, mixed up with Reason; and finally, Alain de Ryssel applied to these matters the exactness of a mathematical method.

NEANDER, Der heilige Bernard und sein Zeitalter, 1838.

ELLENDORF, Der heilige Bernard und die Hierarchie seiner Zeit, 1838.

1 Born 1096, died 1140.

Ejusd. Opera stud. ed industr. Canonicorum Regiorum Abbat. St. Vict. Rothomag. 1618, 3 vols. fol.

See C. GFR. DERLING, Diss. (præs. C. GFR. KENFFEL), de Hugone à St. Victore, Helmst. 1745, 4to.

2 Melidunensis; died 1173 A.C., according to the Literary History of France, tom. XIII, p. 1164.

Pullus; died between 1150 and 1154.

4 Pictaviensis; died archbishop of Embrun, 1205.

5 Died archbishop of Rouen, (hence called Rothomagensis), 1164.

6 A Scotchman; died 1173. 7 Called also Alain de l'Isle, CARL. DE VISCH, Oratio de VISCH, Antwerp. 1653, fol.

Opera, Venet. 1506, 8vo. Par. 1518. and Alanus ab Insulis. Died 1203. Alano, in the Works of Alain; ed. by

8 PETRI LOMBARDI libri IV Sententiarum: frequently published, particularly Ven. 1477. fol.; Colon. 1576. 8vo. See BOSSUET and CRAMER'S Hist. part. VI, § 586.

ROSENKRANZ, Zur Geschichte der Deutschen Literatur, 1836. HELFFERICH, Die Christl che Mystik in ihrer Entwickelung und in ihren Denkmalern, 1842, 2 Theile.

SCHMIDT, Der Mysticismus des Mittelalters in seiner Entstehung, 1824.

J. GORRES, Die Christliche Mystik. 4 Bände, 8vo. Regensburg und Tübingen, 1836.

253. The philosophy of religion was promoted by these labours and efforts. For the aim of thinkers was now evidently directed to matters of a vast and comprehensive nature, to the welding of conflicting religious opinions into one whole, and at the same time to an extension of their limits through a farther determination of doctrines, and by answering a multitude of questions which had been started by an idle and wearisome subtilty. Their aim, however, was more especially directed to a founding and establishing of the greatest mysteries, partly by means of Cognition through notions, partly from Intuition (rational and mystical dogmatism). This tendency struck out daily deeper roots, notwithstanding the zealous opposition of the supernaturalist party-which was headed by St. Bernard de Clairvaux, (born 1091, died 1153) and Walther, Abbot of St. Victor, (about 1180) who attempted to condemn these efforts as heretical, and to decry the Dialectics of Aristotle, which had already attained the highest consideration. It is true, that the latter defined the limits of Dialectics with tolerable accuracy; but this alone was quite insufficient to check the tendency to rational insight deeply rooted in the human mind, and favoured by the spirit of the age.

254. John of Salisbury (J. parvus Sarisburiensis), a pupil of Abelard, and a man of classical erudition, in spite of his predilection for Aristotle clearly perceived the faultiness of the philosophy of his age, and the futility of that logic which he attacked with considerable ability. Together with these abuses there was manifested a certain energy of reason, which, although it was as yet imperfectly restrained, was nevertheless well adapted and inclined to grapple with

1 In his POLICRATICUS, sive de Nugis Curialium et Vestigiis Philosophorum, libb. VIII, folio s. l. vel a. (Colon. 1472?); et METALOGICUS, libb. IV, 8vo. Par. 1610; Lugd. Bat. 1639; Amst. 1664, 8vo.; and in his CCCI Epist., Paris, 1611, 4to.

authority. The adverse party, however, succeeded for a time in bridling it by means of persecutions, interdicts, and anathemas. Dialectics came in the end to be employed both for and against the system of the Church, as was shown by the example of Simon de Tournay (Tornacensis) of Amalric (or Amauric de Bene, in the district of Chartres), who died 1209; and by his pupil David de Dinant. Besides a great number of paradoxical doctrines, the last taught a species of Pantheism, borrowed, it is probable, from J. Scot Erigena. Their heresy naturally turned into derision and well-founded contempt the School Dialectics.

THIRD PERIOD OF THE SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY: FROM ALEXANDER OF HALES TO OCCAM.

Exclusive dominion of Realism; Complete alliance between the Church and the Aristotelians.

J. LAUNOJUS, De Varia Aristotelis Futurâ. (Above, at the head of § 245).

255. It was precisely at the time when everything appeared to have a tendency to discard the philosophy of Aristotle from all interference with the doctrines of the church, that it acquired the greatest ascendancy. About the year 1240 men began to be better acquainted with his works collectively, in consequence of being brought into contact with the Greeks, who had never altogether deserted him; and still more through the Arabians. The very circumstance that the perusal of these works was prohibited in 1209, 1215, and 1231, increased the avidity with which

1 David de Dinant was moreover the author of a system of Christian Socialism. See the article on his name in BAYLE'S Dictionary.

2 GERSON, De Concordia Metaphysicæ cum Logica, part. IV. THOMAS Aq. Lib. Sent. II. dist. 17, Qu. I, a. I. ALBERTI Summa Theol. part I. Tract. IV. Qu. 20.

3 In the eleventh century appeared in the Greek empire the philologist MICHAEL CONSTANTINE PSELLUS, born 1020, died about 1100: the author of Commentaries on Aristotle and Porphyry; Paraphrasis Libri Arist. de Interpretatione, Gr., with the Commentaries of Ammonius and Magentinus, about 1503. Compendium in Quinque voces Porphyrii et Aristotelis Prædicamenta, Gr., Paris. 1541; and oúvoyis έis tÒV