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+CHRIST. GARVE, Treatise on the different Principles of Moral Philosophy, from Aristotle to the present time, Breslau, 1798, 8vo. And, in continuation of this work, Special Considerations on the most general Principles of Moral Philosophy, Ibid. 1798, 8vo.

G. DREWES, Conclusions of Philosophical Reason on the Principles of Morality, Leips. 1797, two parts, 8vo.

C. C. E. SCHMID, History of the Doctrine of Indifference, in his work entitled 'Adiaphora,' Jena, 1809, 8vo.

+ CAR. FRIED. STAUDLIN, History of the Doctrine of the Morality of the Drama, Gött. 1823.

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+ GOTTLEIB HUFELAND, Essay on the Principles of Natural Right, Leips. 1785, 8vo.

J. C. F. MEISTER, On Oaths, according to the Principles of Pure Reason, a prize composition, Leips. and Züllichau, 1810, 4to. Another prize composition of the same author, On the Diversity of Opinion among Philosophers with regard to the Fundamental Principles of Morality and Natural Right, Ibid. 1812, 4to.

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MICH. HISSMANN, History of the Doctrine of the Association of Ideas, Götting. 1776, 8vo.

The same subject, at greater length, J. G. E. MAAS, Essay on the Imagination, second edition, Halle, 1795, 8vo. And in his preceding work; Paralipomena ad historiam Doctrinæ de Associatione Idearum, Hal. 1787, 8vo.

For the remainder, see the treatises on the different philosophical sciences in particular.

CHAPTER II.

SOME PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROGRESS OF PHILOSOPHIC REASON.

39. The human mind is the inmost basis of the acts and of the changes which constitute the inner life of man, and these phenomena are subject to the laws of the human mind. It is from without that the first impressions of the human mind are derived; on these it speculates at first instinctively and blindly, till having attained to a consciousness of itself, it becomes capable of developing itself freely and with reflection. The act of philosophizing (§ 2) is the offspring of reason directed by its natural thirst for knowledge, and this reason is united to the other faculties of the human mind by the most intimate relation.

40. To know, is to have a representation of a determinate object, or the consciousness of a perception and of its relation

to something determinate, and distinct from the representation itself. Cognition implies two terms, the subjective and the objective, the thing that can be perceived immediately, and the subject to which the apperception is referable. Sensational Perception, Intuition, and Thought, also form a part of knowing; in sensational perception, we represent to ourselves the object such as it is furnished to us by our feelings; in thought, this object of sensation becomes complicated by the addition of notions and judgments, and this complexity becomes connected with a superior unity by means of ideas and principles.

41. The faculty of thinking is manifested as Understanding and as Reason. The understanding prompts and enables us to learn and discover the reasons, causes, and conditions of our conceptions, of our sensations, of our wishes or desires, and of the objects to which they refer. It is the reason that enables us to attend to primary axioms, causes, and conditions; this faculty has the tendency of attracting all knowledge to its highest principle which is independent of every other principle. The understanding chalks out the rules for the conduct of our will; the reason submits all those rules to a supreme rule which prescribes the absolute form, and the highest aim of the free action. Finally, it is thought that establishes unity, connection, and harmony in all our knowledges, whether speculative or practical.

Remark. A great schism exists among philosophers as regards the idea of reason, and its connexion with the understanding. According to some, it is a purely formal faculty; and according to others it is at once a material and formal, a speculative and practical mode of knowing. See the Programme of Bachmann on the confusion of words and of ideas among the German philosophers, in relation with the Understanding and the Reason, Jena, 1814, in 4to; and several works occasioned by the discussion between Jacobi and Schelling. The distinction between the Reason and Understanding has been clearly shown to the English student in the writings of Coleridge, and more recently in the philosophical works of Mr. J. D. Morell. It will suffice here to give a popular definition of the Reason as the Intuitional Faculty, the foun tain of first truths, axioms, and self-evident propositions. The Understanding may be defined as the logical faculty which compares, classifies, and draws conclusions from the objects presented to it by the Reason, the Senses, and the Imagination. (See Coleridge's Table-Talk, J. D. Morell's Philosophy of Religion, and the Preface, by the Editor).

42. By reflection and abstraction we are able to distin

guish between what is originally existing in our cognition, feeling, and desire, from the material upon which these energies exert their influence; and it is only in the former that a satisfactory answer can be obtained to all the problems presented to philosophy for solution by reason. For the material presented to us is accidental, variable, and indefinable; whereas philosophy is rational cognition, which has for its object the highest and first principles of knowledge, and the universal and necessary principles, laws, and aims of things, as they are determined by the original conformation of the mind.

43. Every cognition is a subjective state contained within the consciousness; and as such, a subjective reality belongs to it. The conviction that it also has an objective reality reposes, in all cognition acquired from experience, on a feeling by which we perceive a something as immediately and outwardly existing, to which this cognition must be referred. The objects of philosophy are not to be found in the sphere of immediate perceptions, they are only matters of thought. But since a knowledge of these is derived from the essential constitution of the human mind (§ 42), in their universality and necessity may be found the evidence and certainty of their having not only subjective but also objective reality. We are forced as rational beings to admit that as objective and true which combines with what is real in our consciousness as a fundamental principle.

Observation. These remarks of Tenneman, though probably conclusive in the eyes of the disciple of Kant, will be regarded as obsolete and inconclusive by those who are familiar with the systems of Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel. The Identity Philosophy (Identitäts lehre) of Schelling and Hegel's Pantheistic Idealism, by identifying the Subject and Object, have directed thought into new channels, and trespassed beyond the landmarks of the Kantian critique. (See Stallo's General Principles of the Philosophy of Nature, New York, 1841).

44. Philosophy, as a science, aims at a systematic knowledge of the conditions, reasons, and primary laws of all knowledge. Such a system ought to present a complete development of the principles of the human mind, and a perfect deduction of all that results from them, without tacuna or omission. Without this, it must be impossible to establish a theory of human knowledge which may be complete, solid, and connected through all its parts.

45. All knowledge ought to be placed on a firm foundation, and cemented into a harmonious structure by philosophy. It follows that philosophy itself must lay a wellfounded claim to truth and certainty. Consequently, all true cognitions demand a proof, i.e., a deduction from a higher source of knowledge, saving the highest of all, which cannot be proved, but can only be indicated (by a dissection of the faculty of cognition) as that which is originally and immediately true in its necessary connection with what is conditional and derived. Philosophy then, as a science, is founded on something directly true or certain, and the complete oneness and agreement of what is derived with that which is true per se. In the reason lies the ultimate source of all certainty, and a system of principles and derived knowledges which is true in itself and through its internal harmony.1

46. But before the Reason can arrive at such a comprehension of itself, it must pass through many intermediate degrees of development and improvement; and in this transition-state, being as yet ignorant of the ultimate principle of knowledge, and not seeking it in that direction in which alone it can be found (viz. in the mind instead of external objects, in the subject instead of the object,) ends in mistaking for it something inferior and subordinate; pursues certainty beyond the limits reason; commits innumerable errors in the demonstration of philosophical knowledge; pretends to investigate matters beyond its range; and thus ends in conflict with itself.

47. The development of Reason (§ 46 et § 4), implies that of the other faculties of the mind (§ 49). There can be no doubt that the reason begins to dawn as soon as the development of the other faculties commences. But it is requisite for the other powers of our mind to be in full play, in order for the action of the reason to be complete, and accompanied by consciousness and liberty; and it is only at length that the reason determines its own sphere, its direction, and its proper constitution.

48. This last development, which takes place according to a similar process in small as well as great matters, implies 'The reader. must bear in mind that Tenneman was a Rationalist of Kant's school-hence this assumption.

a principle of activity, and moreover certain particular causes. There is an instinct in man that inclines him to exert his reason; at the same time, this reason is under the influence of various internal causes that occasion its passage through an infinite number of modifications and of degrees, which at one extremity proceed to the ultimate limits of activity, and at the other terminate in inaction.

49. The reflective activity which, when properly cultivated, we call Philosophy (§ 2), presupposes in its turn attention, reflection, and abstraction. These are faculties which manifest themselves in various degrees, proportioned to the diversity of intellectual powers.

50. The causes which influence the development of reason are: the constitution of the human mind; certain desires, doubts, sentiments, and representations of the mind; acquired knowledge; curiosity; emulation, resulting from the number and the diversity of persons engaged in the same pursuit; the influence of genius; example; encouragement; and the free communication of thought.

51. Previously to the scientific investigation of the prin ciples, the laws, and the ends of phenomena presented to it, the human mind in some sort imagines, or, as it were, divines them; and this imagination conforms itself to the laws of the fancy; assimilating and personifying. It is thus that man, in a state of nature, conceives of all things as living and resembling himself. There is vaguely presented to his thoughts a world of spirits, at first without laws; afterwards, under the empire of a law foreign and external (Fate.) He conceives an idea of unity and harmony, less at first in the internal world than the external; less in the whole than the parts; less by strict thought than by a poetic creation (his fancy externalizing the divinations of his reason); and thus advances from a capricious indulgence of the imagination to the exercise of legitimate thought.

52. The development of the Reason begins with the religious feeling. The more that man by reflection extends and enlarges the sphere of his consciousness, the more he elevates himself, with regard to the object of his veneration, from feeling to perception and intuition, and from notions to general ideas. The human mind seeks the evidence of its religious belief, first of all without, in the object; subse quently within, in the rational subject.

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