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PART THE THIRD.

THIRD PERIOD.

MODERN PHILOSOPHY.

THE SCHOLASTIC SYSTEM OPPOSED BY A RETURN TO, AND
BY NEW COMBINATIONS OF, FORMER SYSTEMS
OF PHILOSOPHY.

From the Fifteenth Century to the end of the Sixteenth. FEUERBACH, Geschichte der neuern Philosophie, von Bacon bis Spinoza. (1833-1844) § 150--214.

CARRIERE, Die philosophische Weltanschauung der Reformations Zeit, 1847, § 609--725.

BLAKEY, History of the Philosophy of Mind. 4 v. 8vo.

RIXNER, Handbuch der Geschichte der Philosophie, vol. 3: Geschichte der neuern und nuesten Zeit, 2te Ausg. Sulzb. 1829.

RITTER, Geschichte der Philosophie, 9 Theil. Geschichte der neuern Philosophie, erster Theil, 1850.

SIGWART, Geschichte der Philosophie, 2 und 3 Band, vom 16ten Jahrhunderte bis auf die Gegenwart, 1844.

278. Scholasticism, which had now accomplished its mission, may be defined as the one-sided course of dogmatising Reason attempting to bring about philosophical knowledge through the solution and combination of conceptions under the dominion of a foreign principle, and in conformity with the fundamental axioms of the Aristotelian philosophy, which were adopted without submitting them to any test. The disputes of the two adverse sects into which its supporters were subdivided, gradually loosened its hold on the public mind, and the Nominalists in the end openly attacked its authority; so that men became more and more awakened to the necessity (though as yet imperfectly understood) of giving Science a new foundation and fresh fuel, by a more accurate observation of Nature, and by increased study of the Languages. The party of the Mystics especially, animated as they were by a deep want and longing for a better

spiritual nourishment, were dissatisfied with the meagre and pedantic forms which were, as yet, their only support. Nevertheless, it was from another quarter that the revolution was destined to commence.

279. The human mind had too long lost the true path of Science, to be able immediately to recover it. In consequence of its long subjection to prescriptive notions, we find that it continued for some time to labour to unravel the consequences of those it had inherited, rather than apply itself to the legitimate objects of inquiry-the principles of knowledge, and of its objects. From want of skill to detect the concatenation of different branches of knowledge, and from the habit of confounding cognitions derived from very different sources, the human mind was unable to discover the faultiness of its own method, and the influence of the old manner was necessarily prolonged. Other circumstances contributed to the same result: the inveterate reverence for Aristotle's authority-the want of real and accurate knowledge-the bad taste of the age, and the low state of classical learning-added to the redoubtable authority of the Papal Hierarchy, slavish attachment to the dogmas handed down and sanctioned by the Church, and the jealous zeal with which the guardians of the ancient Dogmatism protected their errors; all these auxiliary cir cumstances long continued to make it difficult to shake off the intolerable yoke imposed on the reason, against which some bolder spirits had already begun to rebel.

280. Nevertheless certain political events in Europe gradually prepared the way, though at first distantly, for a complete change in its civil and ecclesiastical constitution; shook the supports of the old philosophy; and, by ultimately destroying it, helped to produce a revolution in the literary world, rich in important consequences. These were: the Crusades-the Invention of Printing-the Conquest of Constantinople-the Discovery of the New World-and the Reformation; with the direct or indirect results of these events; such as the formation of a Middle Class of citizens -the influence acquired by public opinion-the increase of the Temporal at the expense of the Spiritual Power-the consolidation of civil authority on firmer and better-established bases-the advancement of experimental knowledge and the sciences-the acquisition of models for imitation

and sources of instruction in the recovery of the authors of antiquity-and, lastly, the improvement and cultivation of the languages of Modern Europe. The human mind became sensible of its need of instruction and of the imperfection of its present systems, and demanded a better philosophy; but, too weak as yet to support itself without such assistance, it leaned upon the authors of antiquity for guidance and support. The cultivation of this study brought with it an improved spirit of refinement and moral improvement, and at the same time showed by reflection the evils of that state of mental subjugation to which so many centuries of mankind had been reduced, and awakened in those who prosecuted it a desire to liberate themselves from such thraldom.

281. At the same time that these circumstances from without operated, or contributed to operate, so great a change in the freer use of Reason, a strong desire prevailed among many for a higher knowledge and wisdom revealed by God; because, owing to the path which mental cultivation had followed, and from the still imperfect development of the Reason, there had arisen a conviction that certainty of knowledge and a completely satisfying wisdom could alone come from God; and, consequently, to the Bible was added also the Cabbala, as a frequent source of Philosophy. A prejudice which appears to have been derived by the Fathers, and which was in part kept alive and recommended by the constant disputes and uncertainties of a vast number of contending sects, into which the Philosophical world was soon divided, fostered this thirst for secret Divine Wisdom.

282. The consequence of all these different causes was that a variety of systems of greater or less validity began to prevail; knowledge was cultivated and improved; some of the Grecian systems of philosophy were cultivated and adopted; discussions were set on foot with regard to their respective merits, and the attempt was made to combine them (either partially or entirely), and to reconcile them. with Christianity. The systems themselves were quently submitted to examination, attempts were made to extend the dominion of Science, more especially in the

conse

1 ERHARD'S Geschichte des Wiederaufblühens wissensschaftlicher Bildung. 1827--32. 3 Bände.

department of Natural History (as yet so imperfectly culti vated), though accompanied with a thirst for occult and mysterious wisdom. Lastly came the desire to combine several of these controversies in one system, with a special reference to the fundamental principles of Christianity. An attempt was also made to unite Theology and Philosophy, Ideas and Conceptions;-the doctrines of Plato and those of Aristotle.

Revival of Greek Literature in Italy; with its immediate

consequences.

283. When the Greeks, who had always retained a certain degree of attachment for letters, derived from their renowned ancestors (§ 236), came to solicit in Italy assistance against the Turks, and, after the capture of Constantinople, sought there a safer residence than in their own country, they brought with them a rich fund of various arts and literary treasures, and infused a new energy into the minds of the Western nations, who were already in a state to profit by such acquisitions. Among these precious. remains of Ancient Greece were the works of Aristotle and Plato in their original form: the knowledge of which was presently disseminated through Europe with remarkable celerity. The Greeks who respectively supported the two systems of those great philosophers (such as George Gemisthus Pletho, on the one side, a partizan of the Neoplatonic

To this age belong the poets Dante Alighieri, Petrarca, and Boccaccio, who contributed much to the general diffusion of a literary taste, though not immediately and directly to that of philosophy.

For the learned Greeks who were instrumental in bringing about this revival of Classical literature, (Emmanuel Chrysoloras, Th. Gaza, George of Trebizond, John Argryopulus, etc.), see HUMPHR. HODIUS, De Græcis illustribus Linguæ Gr. Literarumque Humaniorum restauratoribus, Lond. 1742, 8vo. HEEREN, Hist. of the Study of Class. Lit. CHPH. FR. BÖRNER, De Doctis Hominibus Græcis Literarum Græcarum in Italia restauratoribus, Lips. 1750, 8vo. CHPH. MEINERS, Biography of celebrated Men.

2 Of Constantinople; came to Florence 1438.

GEO. GEMISTHI PLETHONIS De Platonicæ atque Aristotelica Philosophiæ Differentiâ, Gr. Ven. 1540, 4to.

Among his Philosophical Works, was:

Libellus de Fato, ejusd. et Bessarionis Epist. Amoeboeæ de eodem

doctrine; and on the other George Scholarius, subsequently called Gennadius, Theodore Gaza, and more especially George of Trebizond, all Aristotelians), engaged in a warm dispute respecting the merits of their favourite systems, which it required all the moderation of cardinal Bessarion in any degree to temper.

Attack on the Scholastic System.

284. The first result of all these circumstances was a conflict with the Scholastic system, which, beside the inherent causes of its barbarous style, bad taste, and narrow views, was occasioned also by the recent discovery of the great difference between the Aristotelian theory as taught in the Schools, and the freer, purer spirit that runs through the original writings of Aristotle and Plato. The philologists Hermolaus Barbarus, the translator of Aristotle, of Themistius, and Dioscorides, and Angelus Politianus, were the first to enter the lists with its champions: Laurentius Valla,

Argumento cum Vers. Lat. H. S. REIMARI, Lugd. Bat. 1722, 8vo. De Quatuor Virtutib. Cardinalib. Gr. et Lat. ADR. OCCONE interprete, Bas. 1522, 8vo., et. al. De Virtutibus et Vitiis, Gr. Lat. ed. ED. FAWCONER, Oxon. 1752, 8vo. See FABRIC. Bibl. Gr. tom. X, p. 741.

Came into Italy about 1430; died about 1478. He was born at Thessalonica.

2 Born 1395, in the isle of Crete; professor of Greek literature in various places in Italy; died 1484 or 86.

Besides several commentaries, he wrote the dissertation styled, Comparatio Aristotelis et Platonis, Ven. 1523, 8vo.

3 On this subject see a Dissert. of BOIVIN in the Mem. of the Acad. of Inscript., tom. II, p. 775, sqq.

See his work: In Calumniatorem Platonis libb. IV, Ven. 1503 et 1516, directed against the Aristotelians. Ejusd.; Epist. ad Mich. Apostolicum de præstantiâ Platonis præ Aristotele, etc., Gr. cum vers. Lat.; Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscript., tom. III, p. 303.

4 Born in 1395, at Trebizond, came to Florence in 1438, died in 1472. 5 Hermolao Barbaro, of Venice; born 1454, died 1493.

6 Properly Angelo Ambrogini, or Cino; surnamed Poliziano: born at Monte Pulciano 1454; died 1494.

7 Lorenzo Valla of Rome; born 1403, died 1457.

Laurentii Vallæ Opera, Basil. 1543, fol. De Dialecticâ contra Aristoteleos. Venet, 1499, fol. De Voluptate et Vero Bono libb. III, Basil. 1519, 4to. De Libero Arbitrio, ibid. 1518, 4to.

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