ances of nature are produced by the agency of Spirits (as the Platonists pretended), or that of the constellations. He, moreover, distinctly pronounced the deviation of the Aristotelian doctrine from the creed of the Church;1 and he gave utterance to freer views than were then current, especially on the subjects we have enumerated, thereby exciting a deeper spirit of research. Having asserted that, according to Aristotle, there is no certain proof to be adduced of the Immortality of the Soul, Pomponatius drew upon himself a violent and formidable controversy, in which he defended himself by asserting the distinction to be maintained between natural science and positive belief. Many superior men were formed in his school, such as Simon Porta or Portius, Paulus Jovius,3 Julius Caesar Scaliger, who subsequently opposed Cardan; the cardinal Gasparo Contarini and Augustus Niphus (who became his adversaries); the Spaniard J. Genesius Sepulveda; and lastly, the paradoxical freethinker Lucilio Vanini, burnt at Toulouse in 1619. Besides Pomponatius (who was the head of the School of Alexandrists), this sect boasted other learned men who were not among his disciples; such as, Nicolas Leonicus, surnamed Thomæus; Jacobus Zabarella,10 who differed on some points from Aristotle; Cæsar Cremoninus," and Francis Pic

De Fato, III, 1.

2 Sim. Porta, died 1555.

3 Paolo Giovio, born at Como 1483, died 1559.

4 Della Scala, born at Ripa 1484, died 1559.

5 In his Exercitationes de Subtilitate.

6 Born 1473, died 1546. Libri VI, De Intellectu et Dæmonibus, Ven. 1492, fol. Et: Opera Philos., Ven. 1559, 6 vols. fol. Opusc. Moralia et Politica, Paris. 1645, 4to.

7 Born 1491, died 1572.

8 Lucilio, or Julius Cæsar Vanini, was born at Naples, about 1586. Amphitheatrum Æternæ Providentiæ, etc., Lugd. 1615, 8vo.

De Admirandis Naturæ Arcanis, etc., libb. IV, Paris. 1616, 8vo. Life, Misfortunes, Character, and Opinions of Lucilio Vanini, an Atheist of the seventeenth century, etc., by W. D. F., Leips. 1800, 8vo. 9 Born at Venice 1457, died 1533.

10 Born at Padua 1532, died 1589. De Inventione Primi Motoris, Fcf. 1618, 4to. Opp. Philosophica, ed J. J. HAVENREUTER, Fcf. 1623, 4to. 11 Cesare Cremonini, born at Centi, in the duchy of Modena, A.D. 1552, died 1630.

Cæs. Cremonini liber de Pædiâ Aristotelis. Diatyposis Universæ Naturalis Aristotelicæ Philosophiæ. Illustres Contemplationes de

colomini, etc. On the side of the Averroists, with the exception of Alexander Achillinus of Bologna1 (who was styled the second Aristotle); Marc Antony Zimara,2 of San Pietro in the kingdom of Naples; and the famous Aristotelian Andrew Cesalpini, we find no names of great celebrity. Cesalpini turned Averroism into an absolute Pantheism, by representing the Deity not only as the operating cause, but as the constituting cause of the world, as the nature of things, and the active intellect of the World; and he, moreover, identified with the Universal Intelligence the minds of individual men, and even of animals. He asserted the immortality of the soul, because Consciousness is inseparable from Thought; and the existence of Dæmons.

German Peripatetics

See the Dissertation of ELSWICK, quoted § 243.

A. H. C. HEEREN, A few words on the Consequences of the Reformation as affecting Philosophy. In the Reformations-almanach of KAYSER, 1819. p. 114, sqq.

CARRIERE, Die Philosophische Weltanschauung des Reformations Zeitalters, 1847.

294. Although Luther and Melanchthon, in the beginning of the Reformation, entertained unfavourable sentiments towards the Aristotelian philosophy, on the same principle that they denounced the system of the Schoolmen, both, nevertheless, lived to renounce this prejudice; and Melanchthon, especially, not only asserted the indispensability of philosophy as an auxiliary to theology, but recommended especially that of Aristotle, without confining this praise to his logic. In Ethics, however, he maintained the principle Anima. Tractatus tres de Sensibus Externis, de Internis et de Facultate Appetitiva.

Alessandro Achillini, died 1512.

2 Died 1532.

3 Born at Arezzo 1509, died 7603.

Andreæ Cesalpini Quæstion. Peripateticæ libb. V, Venet. 1571, fol. Dæmonum Investigatio Peripatetica. Ven. 1593, 4to.

4 Born at Bretten 1497, died 1560.

5 MELANCHTHONIS Oratio de Vitâ Aristotelis, habita a. 1537, tom. II. Declamatt. p. 381, sqq.; et tom. III, p. 351, sqq.; Dialectica, Viteb. 1534. Initia Doctrinæ Physicæ, 1547, Epitome Philosophia

of Morality to be the will of God. According to his view the law of Morality is found in God's immutable and eternal Wisdom and Justice. On one occasion only was war afterwards declared against philosophy (about 1621), by Dan. Hoffmann, professor of Theology at Helmstädt; and his two disciples, J. Angelus Werdenhagen and Wenceslaus Schilling. The philosophy of Aristotle, disencumbered of the subtilties of the Schoolmen (though these were speedily succeeded by others), owed the favour which it enjoyed in the Protestant universities, to the authority of Melanchthon; and a swarm of commentaries and abridgments of this system presently appeared, which at all events served to keep in practice those attached to such studies. Among such we may particularise Joachim Camerarius, who died at Leipsic 1574.

The credit of Aristotle became in this manner re-established, and so continued till about the middle of the seventeenth century; nor was it materially affected by the desertion of a few, who like Nicolaus Taurellus, the opponent of Cesalpini, seceded a little from the prevailing doctrines. Among this class of philosophers we must add Jac. Shegk, and his pupil Philip Scherbius, as also Jac. and Corn. Martini.

Moralis, Viteb. 1589; De Anima, 1540, 8vo.; Ethica Doctrinæ Elementa, Viteb. 1550. These different works have been frequently republished, and were edited with his works at large by CASPAR PEUCER, Viteb. 1562, 4 vols. fol. Editio nova, ed. BRETSCHNEIDER, 4to. Hala, 1834, &c.

1 DAN. HOFMANN, Qui sit veræ ac sobria Philosophiæ in Theologia usus? Helmst. 1581. See CORN. MARTINI Scriptum de Statibus controversis, etc. Helmstadii agitatis inter Dan. Hofmannum et quatuor Philosophos, Lips. 1620, 12mo.

2 Born at Mümpelgard 1547, died 1606.

NIC. TAURELLI Philosophiæ Triumphus, Basil. 1573, 8vo. Alpes Case [against Cesalpini] Fef. 1597, 8vo. Discussiones de Mundo adv. Fr. Piccolominium Amb. 1603, 8vo.; Marb. 1603, 8vo. Discussiones de Coelo, Amb. 1603, 8vo. See JAC. G. FEUERLIN, Diss. Apologetica pro Nic. Taurello, De Rerum Eternitate, Norimb. 1734, 4to. With the Synopsis Aristotelis Metaphysices.

3 Professor of Nat. Phil. at Tübingen, died 1587.

4 Professor of Logic and Metaphysics at Altdorf, 1605.
5 Corr Martini died as Professor at Helmstadt, in 1621.

Opponents of the Aristotelian Philosophy.

295. Notwithstanding, the adversaries of the Aristotelian system daily increased in number. Without touching upon other Schools more or less opposed to his (whose universality of system impeded their progress), we may enumerate besides Nicolaus Taurellus just mentioned, Franc. Patrizzi, Bruno, Berigard, Magnenus, Telesius, and Campanella: (all of whom we shall have occasion to mention hereafter); with Peter Ramus, one of the ablest opponents of the Peripatetic System, and a distinguished mathematician. He engaged in the dispute from a disgust for the technicalities of the Schools, and laboured to give popularity to a more accessible kind of Philosophy, but was deficient in a true philosophical spirit, and without an adequate comprehension of the principles of Aristotle; which he attacked without measure or moderation; asserting that they were a tissue of error. Logic was the first point he objected to;2 asserting that it was altogether factitious, without order, and without perspicuity; at the same time that he composed a new one, more adapted to practical use, which he wished to substitute for that of Aristotle. He defined it to be, "Ars bene disserendi," and considered Rhetoric to be an essential branch of it. Notwithstanding the attacks of his many enemies, who were by no means temperate in their animosity, he attracted some partisans (called after him Ramists), especially in Switzerland, England, and Scotland. Among others, Audomar Talaus (Talon), his two disciples Thom. Freigius of Fribourg, and Franc Fabricius; Fr. Beuchus; Wilh. Ad. Scribonius; and Gasp. Pfaffrad. At last a party

1 Properly called P. de la Ramée, of a poor family in Picardy; born 1515; killed at Paris in the massacre of St. Bartholomew, 1572.

JOH. THOM. FREIGII Vita Petri Rami, at the end of Audomari Talæi Orationes, Marb. 1599. Besides the works of Ramus mentioned § 143 and 146; see the following notes.

2 Animadversiones in Dialecticam Aristotelis, libb. XX, Paris. 1534, 4to.

3 Institutiones Dialecticæ, lib. II, Paris. 1543, 8vo., 1508; Scholæ Dialecticæ in Liberales Artes, Bas. 1559, fol. Orationes Apologeticæ, Paris, 1551, 8vo., et al.

4 The friend of Ramus. Died at Paris in 1562.

5 Died 1583.

6 Died 1622.

arose that tried to unite the Method of Ramus with the Aristotelian Logic of Melanchthon. To these Eclectics belong Rud. Goclenius,' who was of service to Psychology, and whose pupil Otto Cassman prosecuted his researches into psychological anthropology. To these may be added the celebrated English poet Milton. The principal opponents of Ramus were Ant. Govea, Joach. Perionius, and Charpentier the Aristotelian, (see bibliography of §§ 139, 141, 143); who also was his murderer on the day of St. Bartholomew.

III. Revival of Stoicism.

296. The Stoic doctrines during this period were not altogether without partisans and supporters; but notwithstanding all the advantage they may be supposed to have derived from the dissemination of the works of Cicero and Seneca, and their seeming consistency with the Christian Morals, they did not gain as many adherents as some other philosophical systems. This is ascribable in part to the peculiar theories (in physics and morals) of the Stoics, and partly to the influence of the prevailing spirit of the age, and the established cultivation of the intellect. The writer who principally attached himself to these doctrines, at the period of which we are treating, was Justus Lipsius (Joost Lipss). Originally he favoured the Scholastic system, which he abandoned for the cultivation of Classical literature; particularly the works of Cicero and Seneca. Celebrated as a critic and philologist, he became (though never, in the proper sense of the word, a philosopher) an able expositor of the Stoic system. All that he wanted to make him a true Stoic (as he himself has confessed), was Constancy and Consistency. He seems rather to have aimed

Born at Corbach 1547, died at Marburg 1628.

Yuxoλoyía, h. e. De Hominis Perfectione, Animâ et imprimis Ortu, etc.. Marb. 1590-1597, 8vo. Ejusd. : Isagoge in Org. Aristotelis, Fcf. 1598, 8vo. Problemata Log. et Philos., Marb. 1614, 8vo. Cf. § 129.

2 Psychologia Anthropologica, sive Animæ Humanæ Doctrina, Hanau. 1594, 8vo.

3 Born at Isea, near Brussels, 1547; died 1606.

JUSTI LIPSII libb. II, De Constantiâ, Francof. 1591, 8vo. Ejusd. Opera, Antverp. 1637, 4 vols. fol.