at preparing the minds of his readers for the study of these doctrines, especially as given in Seneca, than to have attempted the restoration of the system. Gasp. Scioppius (Schoppe), a man of equivocal character, published extracts from the works of Lipsius. Thom. Gataker, an Englishman, occupied himself with the historical department of this system, as well as Cl. Salmasius. and Dan. Heinsius.3 2 ORIGINAL ESSAYS AND PARTICULAR COMBI- 297. In the midst of these attempts to re-establish the theories of antiquity, while the old and the new doctrines were brought into constant competition, and the established system not only endeavoured to repulse the attacks which were constantly levelled at it, but to acquire fresh credit by reconciling its discordant doctrines, might be remarked from time to time some superior spirit who had the courage to quit the beaten track, and attempt a new one of his own; though unhappily, from the want of well-established principles for his guidance, he too usually fell into considerable errors. Among these we must reckon the German, Nic. Taurellus, already mentioned (§ 294), who laboured to draw a still stronger line of demarcation between philosophy and theology, and looked upon Reason as the proper source of philosophic knowledge. Of the Italians, Cardan (§ 291), and Vanini (§ 293), and of the French P. Ramus, who meditated a reform of philosophy. As by this time the oldestablished Scholastic method of drawing all knowledge from Conceptions, was insufficient to satisfy men's minds, they attempted to attain more certain conclusions by the way of experience. This principle was especially followed up by the Political writers and Naturalists. Among the former, 1 Born 1576; died 1649. 2 Born 1574; died 1644. 3 DAN. HEINSII Oratt. On the Works of Scioppius and Gataker, consult the Bibliog. § 158 and 163. 4 A writer who particularly distinguished himself on this side was the Thomist FR. SUAREZ (died 1617); by his Disputationes Metaphysica, Mogunt. 1614. Niccolo Macchiavelli, a statesman, matured by the study of the Classics and by knowledge of the world, had in his Principe (1515) given with great ability a picture of political men, such as he had generally found them and John Bodin (or Bodinus) having in his Republic discarded the opinions of Plato and Aristotle, had endeavoured to explain the principles of a form of government neither an absolute Monarchy nor a Democracy, and regulated by mixed principles of strict justice and accommodating prudence. II. Telesius. FR. BACO, De Principiis et Originibus secundum Fabulas Cupidinis et Coli, sive de Parmenidis et Telesii et præcipue Democriti Philosophia tractatâ in Fabulâ de Cupidine. Opp. tom. III, ed. ELZEV. p. 208. Jo. GE. LOTTERI Diss. de Benardini Telesii Philosophi Italici Vitâ et Philosophia, Lips. 1726-1733, 4to. Lives and Opinions of the most celebrated Physicians at the end of the Sixteenth and beginning of the Seventeenth Centuries. Published by TH. AUG. RIXNER and SIBER, fasc. III, Sulzb. 298. A reformation was attempted in Natural Philosophy by Bernardinus Telesius. Born 1508, at Cosenza, in the kingdom of Naples, he received a classical education from an uncle at Milan, and subsequently at Rome; and at Padua devoted himself with ardour to philosophical and mathematical studies, from which he imbibed a disinclination for the doctrines of Aristotle. At a more advanced age, he published with great success his De Naturâ juxta Propria Principia. He became a teacher of Natural Philosophy at Naples, and founded an academy named after him, Telesiana 1 Born at Florence 1496; died 1527. JOH. FR. CHRISTII De Nic. Macchiavello libb. III, Lips. et Hal. 1731, 4to. Opere 1550, 4to., etc., Milan. 1805, 10 vols. 8vo.; Flor. 1820, 10 vols. 8vo. 2 Born at Angers about 1550; died 1596. GUHRAUER, Das Heptaplomeres des Bodin, zur Geschichte der Cultur und Litteratur im Jahrhunderte der Reformation, 1841. Vergleiche die Anzeige dieser Schrift, in den Deutschen Jahrbüchern für Wissensch. und Kunst, No. 186-193, § 744-780. De la République, Paris, 1576, fol. and 1578. In Latin 1586, fol. 3 The two first books appeared at Rome, 1565, in 4to. The entire work was published at Naples in 1586 and 1588. and Consentina; which was intended to demolish the Aristotelian philosophy. He was compelled by the persecutions he underwent from the monks, which injured his health, to retire to Cosenza, where he died 1588. His system is one of Naturalism, and bears some resemblance to the views of Parmenides and Anaxagoras (§ 99, 107), and is closely connected with the doctrines relating to God and Morality. His chief objection to those of Aristotle is, that he laid down as principles mere abstractions (abstracta et non entia). He himself maintained the existence of two incorporeal and active principles, Heat and Cold; and a corporeal passive principle, Matter; on which the other two exercise their influences. He derived the heavens from Heat, and the earth from Cold; and attempted, in a very unsatisfactory manner, to account for the origin of secondary natures by a supposed perpetual conflict between the Heavens and Earth. Having attributed sensation to his two incorporeal principles, he went on to assign souls to plants and animals in general. He drew, however, a broad distinction between the immortal soul of Man, and that of other animals, and asserted that it was the immediate gift of God at the time of conception.1 He maintained that sensation was not absolutely passive, but a perception of changes operated in the mind itself." Knowledge acquired by means of inference he described as a species of imperfect Sensation. Independently of these theories, Telesius was an Empirist and Materialist. His adversaries Marta and Chiocci were, in their turn, attacked by Campanella, (infra). III. Fran. Patrizzi, or Patritius. Lives and Opinions of the most celebrated Physicians, etc.; published by RIXNER and SIBER; fasc. IV: FR. PATRIZZI, Sulzb. 1823, 8vo. 299. Fr. Patrizzi, the author of a new theory of emanation, borrowed the materials of it from all quarters, but principally from the Neoplatonists, and the records of Primitive 2 Ibid. VIII, 21. 3 Campanellæ Philosophia sensibus demonstrata, etc., Neapolis, 1590, 4to. De Rer. Nat., lib. V, c. 1, sqq. + Born at Clisso in Dalmatia, 1529; professor of the Platonic philosophy at Ferrara and Rome, where he died 1593. Mysticism collected by them; as well as from the system of Telesius. He commenced this undertaking by an elaborate refutation of Aristotle. Nevertheless, he attempted a theory of light according to the Aristotelian method. He affects to divide his subject into four parts, viz.: Panaugia, Panarchia, Pampsychia, and Pancosmia: and cites to support his theories a number of apocryphal mystic books. Wisdom he defines to be Universal Science. Light is in all things the primal object of knowledge. Philosophy, therefore, or the investigation of Truth, ought to begin with the contemplation of Light. 1. All Light is derived from the first source of illumination-GOD. 2. God is the highest principle of all things. 3. The universe is animated. 4. It is endowed with the qualities of unity and cohesion by means of Space and Light; both of them incorporeal essences. Such are among the principal ideas which Patrizzi follows up in the work above mentioned. It may be observed that this was not the last occasion when by metamorphosing material forms into Spiritual Essences, an alliance was attempted between the mysticism of the Neoplatonists and the philosophy of Aristotle. IV. Giordano Bruno. STEFFENS, Ueber das Leben des Jordanus Bruno; In Steffens nachgelassenen Schriften, 1846, § 43--70. CLEMENS, Giordano Bruno und Nikolaus von Cusa (Die Philosophie Bruno's), § 5--36, 1847. For Giord. Bruno, see BRUCKER, tom. IV: and BUHLE, History of Modern Philosophy, tom. II, p. 703, sqq. FULLEBORN, Beiträge, etc., fasc. VI. HEUMANN, Acta Philos. fasc. III-IX. XV. CAR. STEPH. JORDANI Disquisitio Historico-Literaria de Jordano Bruno Nolano, Primislavia (no date), 8vo. FR. CHRIST. LAUCKHARD, Diss. de Jordano Bruno, Hal. 1783, 4to. Biographical Memoir of Giord. Bruno, by KINDERVATER; In the Memoirs of Cæsar, relative to the Philosophical World, tom. VI, No. 5. Discussiones Peripatotion, published at first separately, Ven. 1571-1581, 4 vols. See above § 139. 2 Nova de Universis Philosophia in quâ Aristotelic Methodo non per Motum sed per Lucem et Lumina ad primam causam ascenditur, etc., Ferrar. 1591, fol., Ven. 1593, Lond. 1611. 3 Attributed to the ancient Persians. Biography of Bruno, in ADELUNG: History of Human Folly, 1 vol. FR. JACOBI, Letters to Mendelssohn on the Doctrine of Spinoza; second edition, Breslau, 1789, 8vo. Suppl. I. + HEYDENREICH, Appendix to the History of Revolutions in Philosophy, by CROMAZIANO, p. 257, tom. I. Lives and Opinions of the most celebrated Natural Philosophers, etc. (see prec. §). 300. The most interesting thinker of this age was another Italian named Giordano Bruno (Jordanus Brunus ;) remarkable for his history, as well as his learning and great abilities. He was endowed with a comprehensive and penetrating intellect, united to a fruitful imagination; of an elevated, but restless and passionate character; and greedy of fame. He possessed extensive knowledge of the mathematics, physics, and astronomy; and a mind splendidly enriched by the influence of classical literature. He was born at Nola, in the kingdom of Naples, about the middle of the sixteenth century. Little is known of his early life. He professed himself a Dominican, but the year and place of his noviciate are not known. Some religious doubts and bold strictures on the monkish orders obliged him to quit Italy, probably in 1580. He retired to Geneva, where his love for dispute and paradox, and the intolerance of the adherents of Calvin, brought him into trouble. Thence he retreated to Paris, where he gave public lectures on the Ars Magna of Raymond Lulli. After a visit to London, he returned to Paris, 1585; and there openly announced himself the adversary of Aristotle, which procured him a great number of enemies. In 1586 he became a private teacher of moral philosophy and mathematics at Wittemberg; afterwards he took up his abode at Prague, at Helmstädt (where he taught as professor of philosophy), and at Frankfort on the Maine. In 1592 he returned once more to Padua, it is not known for what reason; and, after having passed some years in tranquillity, was arrested (in 1598) by the Inquisition, sent to Rome, and there, on the 17th of February, 1600, burned as a heretic, and apostate from his religious vows. 301. Bruno was formed by the character of his mind to reject the dry system which had prevailed under the sanction of Aristotle's name. He was naturally inclined to the study and cultivation of the Classics, and in particular was |